Greek Independence, War of (1821-32) Rebellion of Greeks within the Ottoman empire. The revolt began under the leadership of Alex¬ andras Ypsilanti (1792-1828). He was soon defeated, but in the meantime other rebels in Greece and on several islands gained control of the Peloponnese and declared Greek independence (1822). Three times the Turks attempted invasions. Internal rivalries prevented the Greeks from extending their control and consolidating their position. With Egyptian reinforcements, the Turks successfully invaded the Peloponnese and cap¬ tured several cities, but the intervention of the European powers saved the
Greek cause. A settlement was finally reached at an 1830 London con¬ ference, declaring Greece an independent monarchical state.
Greek language Indo-European language spoken mostly in Greece. Its history can be divided into four phases: Ancient Greek, Koine, Byz¬ antine Greek, and Modern Greek. Ancient Greek is subdivided into Myce¬ naean Greek (14th—13th centuries bc) and Archaic and Classical Greek (8th-4th centuries bc). The language of the latter periods had numerous dialects (e.g., Ionic, Attic). The second phase, Koine (Hellenistic Greek), arose during the reign of Alexander the Great in the 4th century bc. A common language with simplified grammar, it spread throughout the Hel- lenized world. Purists who rejected Koine as a corruption of Attic Greek successfully advocated adoption of the Classical language for all writing. Thus, the written form, Byzantine Greek (5th—15th centuries ad), stayed rooted in the Attic tradition while the spoken language continued to develop. Modern Greek, dating from the 15th century, has many local dialects. Standard Modern Greek, Greece’s official written and spoken language, is largely based on a form called Demotic (used in popular speech) but includes elements of Katharevusa, the written language for¬ merly used in government and public life.
Greek law Legal systems of the ancient Greeks. Each city-state admin¬ istered its own laws, many of which were laid down in written statutes. The harsh law code of Draco and the more humane one of Solon are two of the most famous. Unlike Roman law, Greek law produced little analytical juris¬ prudence, though the philosophers examined abstract concepts of justice. Those who sat in judgment based their verdicts less on notions of equity than on the statutes’ literal meaning. Both private and criminal procedures began with the summoning of the defendant to the magistrate and the filing of a written complaint. A type of arbitration was available in civil suits. Enforcement of a judgment was generally left to the plaintiff.
Greek mythology Oral and literary traditions of the ancient Greeks concerning their gods and heroes and the nature and history of the cos¬ mos. The Greek myths and legends are known today primarily from Greek literature, including such classic works as Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, Hesiod’s Works and Days and Theogony, Ovid’s Metamorphoses, and the dramas of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The myths deal with the creation of the gods and the world, the struggle among the gods for supremacy and the triumph of Zeus, the love affairs and quarrels of the gods, and the effects of their adventures and powers on the mortal world, including their link with natural phenomena such as thunderstorms or the seasons and their connection with cultic sites or rituals. Among the great stories of Greek mythology and legend are those of the Trojan War, the voyage of Odysseus, Jason’s search for the Golden Fleece, the exploits of Heracles, the adventures of Theseus, and the tragedy of Oedipus. See also Greek religion.
Greek Orthodox Church Independent Eastern Orthodox church of Greece. The term is sometimes used erroneously for Eastern Orthodoxy in general. It remained under the patriarch of Constantinople until 1833, when it became independent. It is governed by 67 metropolitan bishops, presided over by an archbishop.
Greek pottery Pottery made in ancient Greece. Its painted decoration has become the primary source of information about the development of Greek pictorial art. It was made in a variety of sizes and shapes, accord¬ ing to its intended use; large vessels were used for storage and transpor¬ tation of liquids (wine, olive oil, water), smaller pots for perfumes and unguents. The earliest style, known as the Geometric style (c. 1000-700 bc), features geometric patterns and, eventually, narrative scenes with stylized figures. From the late 8th to the early 7th century bc, a growing Eastern influence resulted in the “Orientalizing” of motifs (e.g., sphinx, griffin), notably in pieces made in Corinth (c. 700 bc), where the painters developed black-figure pottery. Athenians adopted the black-figure style and from 600 bc on became the dominant manufacturers of Greek pot¬ tery. They invented red-figure pottery c. 530 bc. By the 4th century bc the figured decoration of pottery had declined, and by the end of the century it had died out in Athens.
Greek religion Beliefs, rituals, and mythology of the ancient Greeks. Though the worship of the sky god Zeus began as early as the 2nd mil¬ lennium bc, Greek religion in the established sense began c. 750 bc and lasted for over a thousand years, extending its influence throughout the Mediterranean world and beyond. The Greeks had numerous gods who controlled various natural or social forces (e.g., Poseidon the sea, Demeter the harvest, Hera marriage). Different deities were worshiped in different
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localities, but Homer’s epics helped create a unified religion, in which the major gods were believed to live on Mount Olympus under the rule of Zeus. The Greeks also worshiped various gods of the countryside: Pan, nymphs, naiads, dryads, Nereids, and satyrs (see satyr and silenus), along with the Furies and the Fates. Heroes from the past, such as Heracles and Asclepius, were also venerated. Animal sacrifices were of great importance, usually made at a temple on the altar of the god. Other cultic activities included prayers, libations, processions, athletic contests, and divination, particu¬ larly through oracles and birds. Great religious festivals included the City Dionysia at Athens and the festival of Zeus in the western Peloponnese that included the Olympic Games. Death was seen as a hateful state; the dead lived in the realm of Hades, and only heroes enjoyed Elysium. Great wrongdoers suffered in Tartarus. Mystery religions emerged to satisfy the desire for personal guidance, salvation, and immortality. Greek religion faded with the rise of Christianity and lost its last great advocate with the death of Julian in ad 363. See also Greek mythology.
Greek Gods and Goddesses
Aeolus
god of the winds
Helios
god of the sun
Aphrodite
goddess of love, beauty,
Hephaestus
god of fire and metal-
and procreation
working
Apollo
god of sunlight, prophecy,
Hera
queen of heaven, goddess
music, and poetry
of marriage and women
Ares
god of war
Hermes
messenger god and god
Artemis
goddess of the animals,
of commerce, fertility, and
hunting, and fertility
dreams
Athena
goddess of wisdom
Hestia
goddess of the hearth
Boreas
god of the north wind
Iris
goddess of the rainbow,
Cybele
mother of the gods,
messenger of the gods
humans, and animals
Morpheus
god of dreams
Demeter
goddess of fruit, crops,
Nemesis
goddess of vengeance
and vegetation
Nike
goddess of victory
Dionysus
god of wine
Pan
god of pastures, forests,
Eos
goddess of the dawn
and herds
Eros
god of love
Persephone
goddess of the under-
Gaea
goddess of the earth
world
Hades or
god of the underworld
Poseidon
god of the sea