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anthracnose ► antiaircraft gun I 81
domestic heating, but today they have given way to other sources of energy (e.g., natural gas and electricity).
anthracnose \an-'thrak-,nos\ Plant disease of warm humid areas, caused by a fungus (usually Colletotrichum or Gloeosporium). It infects various plants, from trees to grasses. Symptoms include sunken spots of various colours in leaves, stems, fruits, or flowers, often leading to wilt¬ ing and dying of tissues. Dogwood anthracnose, caused by the fungus Discula destructivei, thrives in cool climates; in the U.S. it has caused severe losses to natural stands of dogwoods in mountainous regions. It is controlled by destroying diseased tree tissue, using disease-free seed and disease-resistant varieties, applying fungicides, and controlling insects and mites that spread anthracnose fungi from plant to plant.
anthrax \'an-,thraks\ Infectious disease of warm-blooded animals, caused by Bacillus anthracis , a bacterium that, in spore form, can retain its virulence in contaminated soil or other material for many years. A dis¬ ease chiefly of herbivores, the infection may be acquired by persons han¬ dling the wool, hair, hides, bones, or carcasses of affected animals. Infection may lead to death from respiratory or cardiac complications (within 1-2 days if acute), or the animal may recover. In humans, anthrax occurs as a cutaneous, pulmonary, or intestinal infection. The most com¬ mon type, which occurs as an infection of the skin, may lead to fatal sep¬ ticemia (blood poisoning). The pulmonary form of the disease is usually fatal. Sanitary working environments for susceptible workers are critical to preventing anthrax; early diagnosis and treatment are also of great importance. In recent decades, various countries have attempted to develop anthrax as a weapon of biological warfare; many factors, includ¬ ing its extreme potency (vastly greater than any chemical-warfare agent), make it the preferred biological-warfare agent. Concerns about anthrax mounted in 2001 after it was found in letters mailed to members of the U.S. government and news agencies.
anthropology The “study of humanity.” Anthropologists study human beings in aspects ranging from the biology and evolutionary history of Homo sapiens to the features of society and culture that decisively dis¬ tinguish humans from other animal species. Because of the diverse sub¬ ject matter it encompasses, anthropology has become, especially since the middle of the 20th century, a collection of more specialized fields. Physi¬ cal anthropology is the branch that concentrates on the biology and evo¬ lution of humanity. The branches that study the social and cultural constructions of human groups are variously recognized as belonging to cultural anthropology (or ethnology), social anthropology, linguistic anthropology, and psychological anthropology. Archaeology, as the method of investigation of prehistoric cultures, has been an integral part of anthropology since it became a self-conscious discipline in the latter half of the 19th century.
anthroposophy V.an-thro-'pa-so-foV Philosophy based on the view that the human intellect has the ability to contact spiritual worlds. It was for¬ mulated in the early 20th century by Rudolf Steiner and was influenced by theosophy. Steiner wanted to develop a faculty for spiritual perception independent of the senses, which he believed was latent in all human beings, and to this end he founded the Anthroposophical Society in 1912. Now based in Dornach, Switzerland, the society has branches worldwide.
anthurium \an-'thur-e-3m\ Any plant of the genus Anthurium, com¬ prising about 600 tropical herbaceous species in the arum family, many of which are popular foliage plants. A few species are widely grown for the florist trade for their showy, long-lasting blossoms; these include the fla¬ mingo lily {A. andraeanum ), which boasts a salmon-red flower, and the flamingo flower, or pigtail plant (A. scherzeranum), which has a scarlet flower.
Anti-Comintern Pact Agreement concluded first between Germany and Japan (Nov. 25, 1936) and later between Italy, Germany, and Japan (Nov. 6, 1937). The pact, sought by Adolf Hitler, was ostensibly directed against the Comintern but was specifically directed against the Soviet Union. It was one of a series of agreements leading to the formation of the Axis Powers. Japan renounced the pact in 1939 but later acceded to the Tripartite Pact of 1940, which pledged Germany, Japan, and Italy to mutual assistance.
Anti-Corn Law League British organization founded in 1839, devoted to fighting England’s Corn Laws, regulations governing the import and export of grain. It was led by Richard Cobden, who saw the laws as both morally wrong and economically damaging. The league
mobilized the industrial middle classes against the landlords, and Cobden won over the prime minister, Sir Robert Peel. The Corn Laws were repealed in 1846.
Anti-Federalists U.S. leaders who opposed the strong central govern¬ ment envisioned in the Constitution of the United States of 1787. Their agitation led to the creation of the Bill of Rights. While admitting the need for changes in the Articles of Confederation, they feared that a strong fed¬ eral government would infringe on states' rights. The group’s adherents, including George Mason, Patrick Henry, Thomas Paine, Samuel Adams, and George Clinton, were as numerous as the members of the Federalist Party, but their influence was weak in urban areas, and only Rhode Island and North Carolina voted against ratification of the Constitution. Anti- Federalists were powerful during the presidency of Thomas Jefferson, when they formed the nucleus of what later became the Democratic Party.
Anti-Lebanon Mountains Mountain range along the border of Syria and Lebanon. Running parallel to the Lebanon Mountains, the range aver¬ ages 6,500 ft (2,000 m) in elevation. Because of its poor soil and steep slopes, it is sparsely populated.
Anti-Masonic Movement Popular movement in the U.S. in the 1830s opposed to Freemasonry. The movement was ignited in 1826 by the disappearance and presumed murder of a New York bricklayer and former Mason, who had supposedly intended to reveal the order’s secrets. Reac¬ tion against the Masons swept through the northeastern U.S. In 1831 the Anti-Masonic Party became the first U.S. third party and the first party to hold a national convention. It condemned Freemasonry for its secrecy and undemocratic character. Its candidate won Vermont in the 1832 elec¬ tion. By the late 1830s the Anti-Masonic movement had been absorbed into the Whig Party.
anti-Semitism Hostility toward or discrimination against Jews as a religious group or “race.” Although the term anti-Semitism has wide cur¬ rency, it is regarded by some as a misnomer, implying discrimination against all Semites, including Arabs and other peoples who are not the targets of anti-Semitism as it is usually understood. In antiquity, hostility to the Jews emerged because of religious differences, a situation wors¬ ened as a result of the competition with Christianity. By the 4th century, Christians tended to see Jews as an alien people whose repudiation of Christ had condemned them to perpetual migration. Jews were denied citizenship and its rights in much of Europe in the Middle Ages (though some societies were more tolerant) or were forced to wear distinctive clothing, and there were forced expulsions of Jews from several regions in that period. Developed during the Middle Ages were many of the ste¬ reotypes of Jews (e.g., the blood libel, alleged greed, conspiracy against humankind) that have persisted into the modem era. The Enlightenment and the French Revolution brought a new religious freedom to Europe in the 18th century but did not reduce anti-Semitism, because Jews contin¬ ued to be regarded as outsiders. In the 19th century violent discrimina¬ tion intensified (see pogrom), and so-called “scientific racism” emerged, which based hostility to the Jews on their supposed biological character¬ istics and replaced religion as the primary basis for anti-Semitism. In the 20th century the economic and political dislocations caused by World War I intensified anti-Semitism, and racist anti-Semitism flourished in Nazi Germany. Nazi persecution of the Jews led to the Holocaust, in which an estimated six million Jews were exterminated. Despite the defeat of the Nazis in World War II, anti-Semitism remained a problem in many parts of the world into the 21st century.