81). He practiced law in Cincinnati,
Ohio, where he represented defen¬ dants in several fugitive-slave cases and became associated with the new Republican Party. After fighting in the Union army in the American Civil War, he served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1865-67). As gov¬ ernor of Ohio (1868-72, 1875-76), he advocated a sound currency backed by gold. In 1876 he won the Republican nomination for presi¬ dent. His opponent, Samuel Tilden, won a larger popular vote, but the Hayes campaign contested the electoral-vote returns in four states, and a special Electoral Commission awarded the election to Hayes. As part of a secret compromise reached with Southerners during the electoral dispute (see Wormley Conference),
Hayes withdrew the remaining federal troops from the South, ending Reconstruction, and promised not to interfere with elections there, ensur¬ ing the return of white supremacy. His decision to introduce civil-service reform based on merit provoked a dispute with Roscoe Conkling and the conservative “stalwart” Republicans. At the request of state governors, Hayes used federal troops against railroad strikers in 1877. Declining to run for a second term, he retired to work for humanitarian causes.
Haymarket Riot (May 4, 1886) Violent confrontation between police and labour protesters in Chicago that dramatized the labour movement’s struggle for recognition. Radical unionists had called a mass meeting in Haymarket Square to protest police brutality in a strike action. A bomb was thrown into the crowd, killing seven policemen and injuring 60 oth¬ ers. Police and workers fired on each other. Public demand for action led to the arrest of eight anarchists (see anarchism). Convicted of conspiracy to murder, they were sentenced to death; four were executed and one committed suicide. In 1893 the three survivors were pardoned by Illinois Gov. John Peter Altgeld.
Hayne, Robert Young (b. Nov. 10, 1791, Colleton District, S.C., U.S.—d. Sept. 24, 1839, Asheville, N.C.) U.S. politician. In 1823 he entered the U.S. Senate, where he became a spokesman for the South and the doctrine of states' rights. In his famous 1830 debate with Daniel Web¬ ster on the Constitution, he argued that the federal Constitution was a compact among the states and that any state might nullify a federal law that it considered in violation of the constitutional compact (see nullifica¬ tion). At the South Carolina nullification convention in 1832, he devel¬ oped an ordinance that declared federal tariff laws null and void in the state. Resigning from the Senate in 1832, he served as governor of South Carolina (1832-34) and as mayor of Charleston (1834-37).
Hays Off ice formally Motion Picture Producers and Distribu¬ tors of America U.S. organization that promulgated a moral code for films. In 1922, after a number of scandals involving Hollywood person¬ alities, film industry leaders formed the organization to counteract the threat of government censorship and to create favourable publicity for the industry. Under Will H. Hays (1879-1954), a politically active lawyer, it initiated a blacklist, inserted morals clauses into actors’ contracts, and in 1930 developed a Production Code that detailed what was morally accept¬ able on the screen. The code was supplanted in 1966 by a voluntary rat¬ ing system.
Haywood, William D(udley) (b. Feb. 4,1869, Salt Lake City, Utah, U.S.—d. May 18,1928, Moscow, Russia) U.S. labour leader. A miner from the age of 15, he chaired the founding convention of the Industrial Workers of the World in 1905 and led its organizing efforts. In 1907 he was acquitted of a charge of involvement in the murder of Idaho’s antilabour former gov¬ ernor, Frank Steunenberg (1861-1905). “Big Bill” Haywood then under¬ took a speaking tour for the Socialist Party and supported numerous strikes. He was later forced out of the party for advocating violence. In 1917 he was convicted of sedition for his opposition to World War I and sentenced to 20 years in prison; in 1921, while free on bail, he fled to Russia.
Hayworth, Rita orig. Margarita Carmen Cansino (b. Oct. 17, 1918, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.—d. May 14, 1987, New York City) U.S. film
actress. She danced with her father in nightclubs from age 12 and played bit parts in films from 1935. She cultivated a sophisticated glamour in Only Angels Have Wings (1939), Strawberry Blonde (1941), and Blood and Sand (1941). The musicals You’ll Never Get Rich (1941), You Were Never Lovelier (1942), and Cover Girl (1944) made her a star and a favourite pinup of U.S. GIs during World War II. Her worldly, erotic role in Gilda (1946) confirmed her status in Hollywood as “the Love God¬ dess.” Her later films include The Lady from Shanghai (1948), Pal Joey (1957), and Separate Tables (1958).
hazel See filbert
Hazeltine Vha-zol-.tinV (Louis) Alan (b. Aug. 7, 1886, Morristown, N.J., U.S.—d. May 24, 1964, Maplewood, N.J.) U.S. electrical engineer and physicist. In the early 1920s he invented the neutrodyne circuit, which made commercial radio possible by neutralizing the noise that plagued all radio receivers of the time; by 1927 some 10 million radio receivers were using the device. Hazeltine later advised the U.S. government on regu¬ lation of radio broadcasting, and during World War II he served on the National Defense Research Committee.
Hazlitt, William (b. April 10, 1778, Maidstone, Kent, Eng.—d. Sept. 18, 1830, Soho, London) British essayist. He studied for the ministry, but to remedy his poverty he became instead a prolific critic, essayist, and lecturer. He began contributing to journals, notably to The Examiner , and to essay collections, such as The Round Table (1817). His lecture courses were published as On the English Poets (1818) and On the English Comic Writers (1819). Many of his most brilliant essays appeared in his two best-known books, Table Talk (1821) and The Plain Speaker (1826). The Spirit of the Age (1825) contains some of his most effective writing.
H.D. See Hilda Doolittle
Head, Bessie orig. Bessie Amelia Emery (b. July 6, 1937, Pieter¬ maritzburg, S.Af.—d. April 17, 1986, Serowe, Bots.) South African-bom Botswanan writer. Born of an illegal union between a white mother and a black father, she suffered rejection and alienation from an early age. She described the contradictions and shortcomings of pre- and postcolonial African society in morally didactic novels and stories, including When Rain Clouds Gather (1969), Maru (1971), A Question of Power (1973), The Collector of Treasures (1977), Serowe, Village of the Rainwind (1981), A Bewitched Crossroad (1984), and The Cardinals (1993).
Head, Edith (b. Oct. 28, 1897, San Bernardino, Calif., U.S.—d. Oct. 24, 1981, Hollywood, Calif.) U.S. costume designer. She became chief designer at Paramount Pictures in 1933 and later worked at Universal. Hollywood’s best-known designer, she was noted for the wide range of her costumes, from the elegantly simple to the elaborately flamboyant. She won a record eight Academy Awards for her work in films such as All About Eve (1950), Roman Holiday (1953), and The Sting (1973).
head louse See human louse head rhyme See alliteration
headache Pain in the upper portion of the head. Episodic tension head¬ aches are the most common, usually causing mild to moderate pain on both sides. They result from sustained contraction of face and neck muscles, often due to fatigue, stress, or frustration. Headaches are treated with aspirin, acetaminophen, or other NSAIDs. Chronic daily headaches are similar but more frequent. They usually have a psychological cause and respond to certain antidepressants. They may also come from overuse of pain relievers. Migraine and cluster headaches are vascular headaches. Headaches may also be caused by distension of arteries at the base of the brain, from fever, hangover, or an attack of high blood pressure. Head¬ ache can be a symptom of meningitis, hemorrhagic stroke, or tumour.
Heade Yhed\, Martin Johnson (b. Aug. 11, 1819, Lumberville, Pa., U.S.—d. Sept. 4, 1904, St. Augustine, Fla.) U.S. painter. He studied in Europe and Britain, then returned to the U.S. to take up portrait and land¬ scape painting. An avid naturalist, he made extensive trips in South and Central America and the Caribbean (1863-70), where he produced lumi¬ nous, meticulously detailed images of the tropical forests and landscapes. The New England coast and the rocky shore of Lake George, N.Y., also inspired notable paintings. He was a leading exponent of luminism.