Hebrew alphabet Script used to write the Hebrew language and a number of other languages used as vernaculars by Jews, including Ladino and Yiddish. The modern 22-letter alphabet in use today differs only slightly from the script adapted by Jewish scribes in the early centuries bc from the square script used to write Imperial Aramaic. Prior to this adaptation, Hebrew was written in a linear script borrowed ultimately from the Phoe¬ nicians and first attested in the 9th century bc; though the linear script passed out of favour among Jews, Samaritans, adherents of an ancient offshoot of Judaism, continued to use it into modern times. Hebrew is written from right to left, and the letter shapes—at least originally— represented only consonants. Later certain of the consonants were utilized to denote vowels in certain positions, and by c. ad 600 a system of dia¬ critics, or “points,” were used to show all vowels in the text of the Bible.
Hebrew calendar See Jewish calendar
Hebrew language Semitic language that is both a sacred language of Judaism and a modern vernacular in Israel. Like Aramaic, to which it is closely related, Hebrew has a documented history of nearly 3,000 years. The earliest fully attested stage of the language is Biblical Hebrew: the earlier parts (“Standard Biblical Hebrew”) date before 500 bc and include even older poetic passages; the later parts (“Late Biblical Hebrew”) were composed c. 500-200 bc. Post-Biblical Hebrew, variously termed Rab¬ binic or Mishnaic Hebrew (see Mishna), is characterized by an early period when Hebrew was still probably to some degree a vernacular and a later period, after c. ad 200, when Aramaic became the everyday speech of Jews in the Middle East. The 6th and 7th centuries marked a transi¬ tion to Medieval Hebrew. The resurrection of Hebrew as a vernacular is closely linked with the 18th-century Haskala movement and 20th-century Zionism. Contemporary Israeli Hebrew is spoken by about five million people in Israel and abroad. See also Ashkenazi; Sephardi; Hebrew alphabet.
Hebrew University of Jerusalem Independent university in Jerus¬ alem, Israel, founded in 1925. The foremost university in Israel, it attracts many Jewish students from abroad; Arab students also attend. It has fac¬ ulties of humanities, science, social science, law, agriculture, dentistry, and medicine; schools of education, social work, pharmacy, home eco¬ nomics, and applied science and technology; and a graduate library school.
Hebrides Vhe-bro-.dezV or Western Isles ancient Ebudae Group of islands, western Scotland, in the North Atlantic Ocean. They are sepa¬ rated into two groups, the Outer Hebrides and the Inner Hebrides, divided by the Little Minch Strait. The Outer Hebrides are administered as the Eilean Siar (Western Isles) council area (pop., 2001: 26,502). The north¬ ern Inner Hebrides lie within the Highland council area, and the southern Inner Hebrides are part of Argyll and Bute council area. Composed of more than 40 islands, only a few of which are inhabited, the Hebrides were originally settled by Celts. Norse raids, which led to Norse rule, began after the 8th century and lasted until 1266, when the islands were ceded to Scotland. Their economy centres on farming, fishing, and weav¬ ing, the latter noted especially for Harris tweed.
Hebe carrying nectar and ambrosia, detail of a vase painting; in the Jatta Museum, Ruvo di Puglia, Italy
AUNARI—GIRAUDON FROM ART RESOURCE
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Hebron ► Hegel I 855
Hebron Vhe-bran \ Arabic Al-Khalll \,al-ka-'lel\ City (pop., 1997 est.: 119,401) in the West Bank territory, southwest of Jerusalem. It is a sacred city of Judaism and Islam as the home and burial place (at the Cave of Mach- pelah) of the patriarch Abraham. King David made Hebron his capital briefly in the 10th century bc. Various Muslim dynasties ruled the city from ad 635 until after World War I (1914-18), except from 1100 to 1260, when the Cru¬ saders controlled it. It was part of the British mandate of Palestine from 1923 until the first Arab-Israeli war in 1948, when it came under the control of Transjordan (later Jordan). Along with the rest of the West Bank, it was annexed by Jordan in 1950 but was captured by Israel during the Six- Day War (1967). It remained under full Israeli administration until 1997, when Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization agreed on a partial Israeli pullout from Hebron and other West Bank cities.
Hecate Yhe-ko-teX Greek goddess of magic and spells. She probably originated in Asia Minor. Hesiod held her to be the daughter of the Titan Perses and represented her as the bestower of wealth and the blessings of daily life. She witnessed the abduction of Persephone by Hades and assisted in the search for her. Pillars called Hecataea were erected at doorways and crossroads to ward off evil spirits. She was sometimes depicted as three bodies back to back, so that she could look in all directions at a crossroads.
Hecatompylos \ I he-k3-'tam-p3- l las\ Ancient city, western Khorasan, Iran. For a time the capital of the kingdom of Parthia, it was located at the southern foot of the eastern Elburz Mountains. It was a Seleucid mili¬ tary outpost c. 300 bc. By c. 200 bc it was the Iranian Arsacid capital. Known to have been on the Silk Road between the Middle East and China, it may have been located between the Iranian cities of Damghan and Shahrud, but its precise site has not been established.
Hecht Vhekt\, Ben (b. Feb. 28, 1894, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. April 18, 1964, New York City) U.S. journalist, novelist, playwright, and film writer. He worked for Chicago newspapers 1910-22; at the Daily News he perfected a type of human-interest sketch that was widely emulated. Later he divided his time between New York and Hollywood. With Charles MacArthur he wrote the plays The Front Page (1928), which influenced both the public’s and the newspaper industry’s ideas about the newspa¬ per world; Twentieth Century (produced 1932); and Ladies and Gentle¬ men (produced 1939). His film scripts, often written with MacArthur, include Gunga Din (1938), Wuthering Heights (1939), Spellbound (1945), and Notorious (1946).
Heckman, James J. (b. April 19, 1944, Chicago, Ill., U.S.) U.S. economist and winner of the 2000 Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences, along with Daniel McFadden, for development of methods for analyzing individual or household behaviour. Heckman studied mathematics at Colorado College (B.A. 1965) and economics at Princeton University (M.A. 1968, Ph.D. 1971). He taught at Columbia University (1970-74) and the University of Chicago (1973- ). The Heckman correction, a two- step statistical approach, offers a means of addressing errors in statistical sampling. He received the John Bates Clark medal from the American Economics Association in 1983.
Heckscher Vhek-shorX, Eli Filip (b. Nov. 24, 1879, Stockholm, Swed.—d. Nov. 26, 1952, Stockholm) Swedish economist and economic historian. He taught at the Stockholm School of Economics from 1909 and was a founder and director of the Stockholm Institute for Economic History. He wrote mainly on economic history, producing such works as The Continental System (1922) and Mercantilism (1935). He originated the concept of commodity points, which limit the fluctuation of paper currencies, and argued in favour of free trade, asserting that differing pro¬ ductive factors were responsible for differing commodities trading advan¬ tages among nations. This hypothesis, expanded on by his student Bertil Ohlin (1899-1979), is now known as the Heckscher-Ohlin theory.
Hector In Greek legend, the eldest son of Priam and Hecuba, the husband of Andromache, and the chief warrior of the Trojan army. In Homer’s Iliad he is notable not only for his military prowess but also for his nobility of character. He was a favorite of Apollo, who helped him slay Achilles’ friend Patroclus in combat; in reprisal, Achilles killed Hector in battle and dragged his naked body around the walls of Troy.