Antipater \an-'tip-9-t3r\ (d. 43 bc) Founder of the Herodian dynasty in Palestine. Bom in Idumaea, a region of southern Judaea, he gained power by helping the Romans, and in return, Julius Caesar appointed him procu¬ rator of Judaea in 47 bc. He was assassinated by a rival four years later, but his son, Herod the Great, was made king of Judaea.
Antiphon \'an-ti-,fan\ (fl. c. 480-411 bc) Orator and statesman. The first Athenian known to practice rhetoric professionally, he wrote speeches for others to give in court but was reluctant to appear in public debate. He may have instigated the revolution of the oligarchic Council of the Four Hundred, an attempt to seize the Athenian government in the midst of war. When the oligarchy fell, he defended his role in the overthrow in a speech called by Thucydides the greatest defense ever made, but he was nonethe¬ less executed for treason.
anti pope In Roman Catholicism, a person who tries to take the place of the legitimately elected pope. Some antipopes were elected by factions in doctrinal disagreements, and others were chosen in double elections arbi¬ trated by secular authorities or picked as third candidates in an effort to resolve such disputes. The earliest of the antipopes appeared in the 3rd century. During the Investiture Controversy, Henry IV appointed an anti¬ pope, and several more antipopes claimed the papal office over the next 200 years as a result of disputed elections or further struggles with secu¬ lar rulers. The principal age of the antipope came after the papal court was moved from Rome to Avignon in the 14th century (see Avignon papacy), an event that led to the Western Schism of 1378-1417. During this era, the popes now considered canonical were elected in Rome, and the antipopes were elected in Avignon.
Antirent War (1839-46) Civil protest by leaseholding farmers in upper New York state. Protesting outdated laws based on semifeudal leasehold¬ ing practices of the early Dutch estate owners, the leaseholders of Albany county in 1839 refused to pay back rent. The governor called out the mili¬ tia to quell the violence. Sporadic acts of resistance against rent and tax collection spread across the state, and in 1845 the governor declared mar¬ tial law. In 1846 a new state constitution abolished the leasehold system.
antiseptic Any of a variety of agents applied to living tissue to destroy or inhibit growth of infectious microorganisms. An antiseptic’s efficiency depends on concentration, time, and temperature. It is most valuable in the disinfection of contaminated wounds or skin surfaces when a wide margin exists between the concentration at which it is germicidal and that at which it is toxic to the body’s cells. Many antiseptics destroy specific types or forms of microorganisms (e.g., bacteria but not spores). Among the major families of antiseptics are alcohols, phenols, chlorine and iodine compounds, MERCURY-based tinctures, certain acridine dyes, and some essen¬ tial oils. Antiseptics are distinguished from disinfectants, which are ger¬ micidal agents used to destroy microorganisms on inanimate surfaces. See also ANTIBIOTIC.
antitank weapon Any of several guns, missiles, and mines intended for use against tanks. Land mines, ordinary artillery, and other projectiles were used to destroy tanks in World War I. By World War II antitank guns had been developed; they frequently fired special ammunition such as the hollow charge shell, which exploded on impact with great penetrating force. Various antitank missiles and launching devices, including the bazooka, were also used in the war.
antitoxin Antibody formed in the body in reaction to a bacterial toxin, which it can neutralize. People who have recovered from bacterial dis¬ eases often develop specific antitoxins that give them immunity against recurrence. Injecting an animal (usually a horse) with increasing doses of toxin produces a high concentration of antitoxin in the blood. The result¬ ing highly concentrated preparation of antitoxins is called an antiserum. The first antitoxin developed (1890) was specific to diphtheria; today, anti¬ toxins are also used to treat botulism, dysentery, gas gangrene, and tetanus.
antitrust law Any law restricting business practices that are consid¬ ered unfair or monopolistic. Among U.S. laws, the best known is the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, which declared illegal “every contract,
Antiochus III, coin, late 3rd-early 2nd century bc; in the British Museum.
COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM; PHOTOGRAPH, J.R. FREEMAN & CO. LTD.
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
antiion ► Antwerp I 85
combination.. .or conspiracy in restraint of trade or commerce.” The Clay¬ ton Antitrust Act of 1914, as amended in 1936 by the Robinson-Patman Act, prohibits discrimination among customers through prices or other means; it also prohibits mergers or acquisitions whenever the effect may be “to substantially lessen competition.” Labour unions are also subject to antitrust laws.
antiion Insect (family Myrmeleontidae) known in its larval stage for its aggressive capture of prey. The ant- lion larva digs a funnel-shaped sandy pit by using its oval, bristled abdomen, then buries itself in the pit with only its powerful jaws uncov¬ ered. Any small insect that ventures over the pit’s edge slips to the bot¬ tom and is seized by the antiion, which sucks the contents of its vic¬ tim and throws out the empty skin.
The adult antiion does not feed. The best known of the 65 described spe¬ cies occurs in North America and Europe.
Antofagasta \,an-t6-fa-'gas-ta\ Seaport (pop., 1999: est.: 243,038), capital of Antofagasta region, northern Chile. Located on Moreno Bay, it was a Bolivian city until it was taken by Chile in 1879 (see War of the Pacific). Its early growth resulted from the nitrate boom that began in 1866 and from the Caracoles silver discovery in 1870. The largest city of north¬ ern Chile, it remains a supply source for the mines and is a communica¬ tions centre on the Pan-American Highway.
Antonello da Messina X.an-to-'nel-o-da-ma-'se-noV (b. c. 1430, Mes¬ sina, Sicily—d. c. Feb. 19, 1479,
Messina) Italian painter. Trained in Naples, then a cosmopolitan art cen¬ tre, he studied the Flemish artists, notably Jan van Eyck. Based on these experiences, when he returned to Venice he introduced oil painting and Flemish pictorial techniques into mid-15th-century Venetian art. His major works were altarpieces and portraits. In Venice he executed the San Cassiano altarpiece, of which three fragments remain. His portrait busts in three-quarter view, combin¬ ing Flemish detail with Italian gran¬ deur, became fashionable.
Antonello’s practice of building form with colour rather than line and shade greatly influenced the subse¬ quent development of Venetian painting. See also Venetian school.
Antonescu V.an-to-'nes-kiA, Ion (b. June 15, 1882, Pitesti, Rom.—d.
June 1, 1946, near Jilava) Romanian marshal. He served in World War I and later became chief of staff (1934) and minister of defense (1937). Appointed prime minister in 1940, he established a fascist dictatorship and openly supported the Axis Powers. Initially he won broad support for his domestic reforms and declaration of war against the Soviet Union (1941), but that support eroded. His regime was overthrown in 1944, and he was later executed as a war criminal.
Antonine Wall Roman frontier barrier in Britain. It ran 37 mi (59 km) across Scotland between the River Clyde and the Firth of Forth. Ordered by Antoninus Pius and built in ad 142 by the governor of Britain, it was about 15 ft (5 m) wide and 10 ft (3 m) high; a ditch 40 ft (12 m) wide and 12 ft (4 m) deep ran in front of it and a road behind. It was controlled by 19 forts spaced at intervals of 2 mi (3 km). Its construction moved the northern boundary of Roman Britain into Scotland, providing defense against the northern tribes beyond Hadrian's Wall, which lay to the south. The wall was abandoned by 196, but traces remain.