Hunkar jskelesi. Treaty of (1833) Alliance between the Ottoman Empire and Russia, signed at the village of Hunkar iskelesi (Unkiar Ske- lessi), near Istanbul. In return for Russian military aid, the Ottoman sul¬ tan, Mahmud II, agreed to a secret article in their mutual defense treaty that closed the Dardanelles Strait to any foreign vessels of war except those of Russia. The treaty made the Ottoman Empire a virtual protector¬ ate of Russia. When other countries became suspicious of the agreement, Russia abandoned its Dardanelles privileges in 1841.
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Hunkers and Barnburners ► Huntington I 911
Hunkers and Barnburners Two factions of the New York state Democratic Party in the 19th century. The party split over slavery in the 1840s. The conservative Hunkers (so called by their opponents as those who “hunkered” or “hankered” after political office), led by William Marcy, favoured the annexation of Texas and denounced antislavery agi¬ tation. The radical and reformist Barnburners (so called by their oppo¬ nents as those who burned the bam to get rid of the rats), led by Martin Van Buren, opposed slavery’s extension into new territories. At the 1848 Democratic national convention, the Barnburners joined the Free Soil Party, nominating Van Buren for president. In the 1850s some Barnburn¬ ers returned to the Democratic Party while others joined the new Repub¬ lican Party.
Hunt, H(aroldson) L(afayette) (b. Feb. 17, 1889, Ramsey, Ill., U.S.—d. Nov. 29, 1974, Dallas, Texas) U.S. oilman. Hunt purchased a tract of land in eastern Texas in 1930 that became one of the richest oil¬ fields in the U.S. He continued his shrewd investments through his Hunt Oil Co. (founded 1936), which grew into the largest independent oil and gas producer in the country. In the 1960s his company exploited vast oil deposits in Libya. He also invested in publishing, cosmetics, pecan farm¬ ing, and health food. He promoted his ultraconservative views on his own radio programs and newspaper column in the 1950s. Two of his sons, N. Bunker and W. Herbert, tried unsuccessfully to corner the world silver market in 1980, causing its near collapse.
Hunt, R. Timothy (b. Feb. 19, 1943, Neston, Cheshire, Eng.) British scientist. After receiving a Ph.D. from the University of Cambridge in 1968, he conducted research at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in New York and in 1990 joined the Imperial Cancer Research Fund (now Cancer Research UK) in London. In the early 1980s, using sea urchins, he discovered cyclins, proteins that play a key role in regulating different phases of the cell cycle. His work led to the discovery of cyclins in humans and proved important in the field of tumour diagnostics. Hunt shared a Nobel Prize with Leland H. Hartwell and Sir Paul M. Nurse in 2001.
Hunt, Richard Morris (b. Oct. 31, 1827, Brattleboro, Vt., U.S.—d. July 31, 1895, Rewport, R.I.) U.S. architect. He studied in Europe from 1843 to 1854, becoming the first U.S. architecture student at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris. He returned to the U.S. to establish the Beaux- Arts style there. His work was eclectic, ranging from ornate early French Renaissance to monumental Classicism to a picturesque villa style. He worked on the extension of the U.S. Capitol and designed the Tribune building in New York City (1873; since destroyed) and the facade of the Metropolitan Museum of Art (1900-02), also in New York. Among the mansions he designed for the new commercial aristocracy is the Break¬ ers in Newport, R.I. (1892-95), which was created in an opulent Renais¬ sance style for the Vanderbilts. Hunt was a founder of the American Institute of Architects.
Hunt, William Holman (b. April 2, 1827, London, Eng.—d. Sept. 7, 1910, London) British painter and cofounder of the Pre-Raphaelite Broth¬ erhood. He attended the Royal Academy schools and achieved his first public success with The Light of the World (1854). His paintings are char¬ acterized by hard colour, minute detail, and an emphasis on moral or social symbolism; their moral earnestness made them extemely popular in Vic¬ torian England. He spent two years in Syria and Palestine painting bib¬ lical scenes, such as The Scapegoat (1855), depicting the outcast animal on the shores of the Dead Sea. His autobiographical Pre-Raphaelitism and the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (1905) is the basic sourcebook of the movement.
Hunter, John (b. Feb. 13, 1728, Long Calderwood, Lanarkshire, Scot.—d. Oct. 16, 1793, London, Eng.) British surgeon. He never attempted to become a medical doctor but assisted in the preparation of dissections for a course of anatomy taught by his brother William Hunter. In the early 1770s he began giving his own lectures on surgery, and in 1776 he was named surgeon extraordinary to George III. He carried out many highly diverse and important studies in comparative biology, anatomy, physiology, and pathology and is considered the founder of pathological anatomy in Britain. He was an important influence on Edward Jenner.
Hunter, William (b. May 23, 1718, Long Calderwood, Lanarkshire, Scot.—d. March 30, 1783, London, Eng.) British obstetrician, educator, and medical writer. The brother of John Hunter, he studied medicine at the University of Glasgow and became a licensed physician in London in 1756. He introduced the French practice of providing individual medi¬
cal students with cadavers for dissection to Britain. After 1756 his medi¬ cal practice was devoted principally to obstetrics; he became the most successful specialist of his day and was made physician extraordinary to Queen Charlotte in 1762. His work did much to remove obstetrics from the purview of midwives and establish it as an accepted branch of medi¬ cine.
Hunter River River, eastern New South Wales, Australia. Rising in the Mount Royal Range of the Eastern Highlands, it flows southwest through the Glenbawn Reservoir and past Denman. There, joined by its major tributary, the Goulburn River, the Hunter turns southeast, entering the Tas¬ man Sea at Newcastle after a course of 287 mi (462 km). Its estuary forms one of the state’s largest harbours.
Hunters' Lodges Secret organization of Canadian rebels and U.S. adventurers dedicated to freeing Canada from British colonial rule. It was formed after the failure of the 1837 rebellion and was concentrated in the northern U.S. border states. In 1838 two attempts to invade Upper Canada (now Ontario) were stopped by local British Canadian militia. Minor bor¬ der raids continued until Pres. Martin Van Buren ordered the lodges dis¬ banded in accordance with U.S. neutrality laws.
hunting Pursuit of game animals, principally as sport. To early humans hunting was a necessity, and it remained so in many societies until recently. The development of agriculture made hunting less necessary as a sole life support, but game was still pursued in order to protect crops, flocks, or herds, as well as for food. Weapons now commonly used in hunting include the rifle, shotgun, and the bow and arrow, and methods include stalking, still-hunting (lying in wait), tracking, driving, and call¬ ing. Dogs are sometimes employed to track, flush, or capture prey. In Europe much of the land once hunted upon was owned by the aristocracy, and gamekeepers were employed to regulate the amount of game that could be hunted in a given area. By the 1800s the land hunted upon was not or had never been privately owned, and there began to develop a “tragedy of the commons,” in that no one hunter had any motive to limit the number of animals killed; certain species were hunted to, or very close to, extinction. To counter this development, ethical codes were established that give the quarry a fair chance to escape; attempts were made to mini¬ mize the suffering of wounded game; and game laws, licensing, and lim¬ ited hunting seasons were established to protect game stocks. For instance, a modem license may authorize a hunter to kill only two deer during the brief season for deer, and he or she must present a kill to a game warden who will then document and tag the animal. There are often penalties and fines for being found with an animal that is not so marked.