apologetics Branch of Christian theology devoted to the intellectual defense of faith. In Protestantism, apologetics is distinguished from polem¬ ics, the defense of a particular sect. In Roman Catholicism, apologetics
refers to the defense of the whole of Catholic teaching. Apologetics has traditionally argued positively to quell believers’ doubts and nega¬ tively against opposing beliefs to remove obstacles to conversion. It attempts to take objections to Chris¬ tianity seriously without giving ground to skepticism. Biblical apol¬ ogetics defended Christianity as the culmination of Judaism, with Jesus as the Messiah. In the 2nd and 3rd cen¬ turies a number of Christian writers defended the faith against the criti¬ cisms of Greco-Roman culture, and in the 5th century St. Augustine wrote his monumental City of God as a response to further criticisms of Christianity following the sack of Rome in 410. John Calvin’s “natural theology” attempted to establish reli¬ gious truths by rational argument. The late 18th-century argument that a universe exhibiting design must have a designer continues to be used; apologists have also dealt with the challenges of Darwinism, Marxism, and psychoanalysis. See also Apologist.
Apologist Any of the Christian writers, primarily in the 2nd century, who attempted to provide a defense of Christianity against Greco-Roman culture. Many of their writings were addressed to Roman emperors and were submitted to government secretaries in order to defend Christian beliefs and practices. The Apologists tried to prove the antiquity of Chris¬ tianity as the fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy, and they argued that the worshipers of the mythological gods were truly godless. They also insisted on the philosophical nature of their faith and its high ethical stan¬ dards. Greek Apologists include Justin Martyr and Clement of Alexandria. Latin Apologists of the 2nd century include Tertullian. See also apologetics.
apology In literature, an autobiographical form in which a defense is the framework for discussion of the author’s personal beliefs. Examples include Plato’s Apology (4th century bc), in which Socrates answers his accusers by giving a history of his life and moral commitment, and John Henry Newman’s Apologia pro Vita Sua (1864), an examination of the principles that inspired his conversion to Roman Catholicism.
apomixis X.a-po-'mik-sosV Reproduction by special tissues without fer¬ tilization. Examples include parthenogenesis in animals (in which a new individual develops from an unfertilized egg) and apogamy in plants (in which the generating tissue may be either the gametophyte or the sporo- phyte). Apomixis provides for the preservation of traits favourable to indi¬ vidual survival, but it eliminates the longer-term evolutionary advantage of genetic contribution from two parents.
apoptosis X.a-pop-'to-sosV or programmed cell death Mechanism that allows cells to self-destruct when stimulated by the appropriate trig¬ ger. It may be initiated when a cell is no longer needed, when a cell becomes a threat to the organism’s health, or for other reasons. The aber¬ rant inhibition or initiation of apoptosis contributes to many disease pro¬ cesses, including cancer. Though embryologists had long been familiar with the process of programmed cell death, not until 1972 was the mecha¬ nism’s broader significance recognized. Apoptosis is distinguished from necrosis, a form of cell death that results from injury.
Apostle Any of the 12 disciples chosen by Jesus. They were Peter, James and John (sons of Zebedee), Andrew, Philip, Bartholomew, Matthew, Tho¬ mas, James (son of Alphaeus), Thaddaeus or Judas (son of James), Simon the Cananaean or Zealot, and Judas Iscariot. The 12 were privileged to attend Jesus continually and receive his teaching. Peter, James, and John formed an inner circle and were allowed to witness such events as the Transfiguration and the agony of Jesus at Gethsemane. After the defec¬ tion and death of Judas Iscariot, Matthias was elected an Apostle. Paul also claimed the title on the ground that he had seen the Lord and been commissioned by him.
Apostolic succession V.a-po-'sta-likN In Christianity, the doctrine that bishops represent an uninterrupted line of descent from the Apostles of Jesus. This succession gives bishops special powers, including the right to confirm church members, ordain priests, consecrate bishops, and rule over the clergy and church members of a diocese. Clement, bishop of Rome, stated the doctrine as early as ad 95, and it is accepted by Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Old Catholic, and several other churches. Some Protestant churches maintain that succession is spiritual and doc¬ trinal rather than ritual and historical.
apotheosis Vo-.pa-the-'o-sosX Elevation to the status of a god. The term recognizes that some individuals cross the dividing line between human and divine. Ancient Greek religion was disposed to belief in heroes and demigods, and historical figures were sometimes worshiped as gods. Until the end of the republic the Romans accepted only one apotheosis, iden¬ tifying the god Quirinus with Romulus. The emperor Augustus ordered Julius Caesar recognized as a god and thus began a tradition of deifying emperors.
apotropaic eye V.a-po-tro-'pa-ikN Painting of a large eye or eyes used to ward off evil. The symbol appears most commonly on Greek drinking vessels from the 6th century bc and was perhaps thought to keep danger¬ ous spirits from entering the mouth with the wine. It is also used in Turk¬ ish and Egyptian art.
Appalachian Geosyncline Great downbuckle in the Earth’s crust in the region of the present Appalachian Mountains. It was in the Appa¬ lachians that James Hall first worked out the geosynclinal theory of moun¬ tain building (see geosyncune).
Apollo Belvedere, restored Roman copy of the Greek original attributed to Leochares, 4th century bc; in the Vati¬ can Museum, Rome
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Appalachian Mountains Mountain system, eastern North America. The Appalachians, among the oldest mountains on Earth, extend almost 2,000 mi (3,200 km) from the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador in the northeast southwestward to Alabama in the U.S. They include the White Mountains in New Hampshire, the Green Mountains in Vermont, the Catskill Mountains in New York, the Allegheny Mountains primarily in Pennsylvania, the Blue Ridge Mountains in Virginia and North Carolina, the Great Smoky Mountains in North Carolina and Tennessee, and the Cumberland Plateau extending from West Virginia to Alabama. Their highest peak is Mount Mitchell in North Carolina. See also Appa¬ lachian Geosyncune; Appalachian National Scenic Trail.
Appalachian National Scenic Trail Footpath, Appalachian Moun¬ tains, U.S. Extending over 2,000 mi (3,200 km) from Mount Katahdin, Maine, to Springer Mountain, Georgia, along the crest of the mountains, the trail passes through 14 states, 8 national forests, and 2 national parks. Hikers and volunteers maintain the shelters and campsites. The trail’s highest point is Clingmans Dome (6,643 ft [2,025 m]) in the Great Smoky Mountains. With its first section opened in 1923, the trail was completed in 1937 and became part of the National Trail System established by the U.S. Congress in 1968.
Appalachian orogenic \,6r-3-'je-nik\ belt Mountain range that extends more than 1,860 mi (3,000 km) along the eastern margin of North America, from Alabama to Newfoundland. It was formed by the progres¬ sive eastward addition of material to the continental margin of North America. The earliest Appalachian sediments were deposited near the start of the Cambrian Period.
Appalachian Revolution See Alleghenian orogeny
Appaloosa Colour breed of horse popular in the U.S. It is said to have descended in the Nez Perce Indian territory of North America from wild mustangs, which in turn descended from the horses of Spanish explorers.
Appaloosas have several distinctive colour patterns and all the regular coat colours of horses. They stand 14-16 hands (about 56-64 in. [142- 163 cm]) tall and weigh 1,000-1,100 lbs (450-500 kg). Though light, they are also sturdy.