The contracted forms of be are shown in the table above.
R82 Contracted forms of be are not used at the end of affirmative statements. The full form must be used instead. For example, you say Richard’s not very happy but Andrew is. You cannot say Richard’s not very happy but Andrew’s.
However, you can use a contracted form of be at the end of a negative statement if it is followed by not. For example, Mary’s quite happy, but her mother’s not’
R83 When be is used in negative clauses, either the verb or not can be contracted. For more information on contractions in negative clauses, see paragraphs 5.59 to 5.60.
R84 The present and past forms of have can also be contracted. This is usually only done when have is being used as an auxiliary.
I’ve changed my mind.
This is the first party we’ve been to in months.
She’s become a very interesting young woman.
I do wish you’d met Guy.
She’s managed to keep it quiet. We’d done a good job.
The contracted forms of have are shown in the table at paragraph R80.
R85 ’s can be short for either is or has. You can tell what ’s represents by looking at the next word. If ’s represents is, it is followed by an -ing participle, complement, or adverbial. If it represents has, it is usually followed by an -ed participle.
She’s going to be all right. She’s a lovely person.
She’s gone to see some social work people.
R86 A noun ending in ’s could also be a possessive. It is followed by another noun when this is the case. For more information on possessives see paragraphs 1.211 to 1.221.
R87 Is and has are written in full after nouns ending in x, ch, sh, s, or z, although in speech has is sometimes pronounced as /ǝz/ after these nouns.
R88 ’d can be short for either had or would. You can tell what ’d represents by looking at the next word. If ’d represents would, it is followed by the base form of a verb. If it represents had, it is usually followed by an -ed participle.
We’d have to try to escape. ’It’d be cheaper to go by train,’ Alan said.
At least we’d had the courage to admit it. She’d bought new sunglasses with tinted lenses.
The formation of tenses
R89 A finite verb phrase is the type of verb phrase that goes with a subject. It contains a form of the main verb (the one that you are using to convey your meaning), and often one or more auxiliaries.
A finite verb phrase has the following structure:
(modal)(have)(be)(be) main verb.
You choose the elements in brackets according to, for example, whether you are talking about the past or the present, or whether you are concentrating on the performer of an action or the thing affected by it. They are called auxiliaries.
If you want to indicate possibility, or to show your attitude to your hearer or to what you are saying, you use a type of auxiliary called a modal. Modals must be followed by a base form (an infinitive without to). The use of modals is explained in Chapter 5 (5.92 to 5.256).
She might see us.
She could have seen us.
If you want to use a perfect form, you use a form of have. This must be followed by an -ed participle.
She has seen us.
She had been watching us for some time.
If you want to use a progressive form, you use a form of be. This must be followed by an -ing participle.
She was watching us.
We were being watched.
If you want to use the passive, you use a form of be. This must be followed by an -ed participle.
We were seen.
We were being watched.
If there is an auxiliary in front of the main verb, you use an appropriate form of the main verb, as mentioned above. If there is no auxiliary, you use an appropriate simple form.
The verb do is also used as an auxiliary, with simple forms, but only in questions, negative statements, and negative imperative clauses, or when you want to be very emphatic. It is followed by the base form of the main verb. Detailed information on the uses of do is given in Chapter 5.
Do you want me to do something about it?
I do not remember her.
I do enjoy being with you.
R90 A finite verb phrase always has a tense, unless it begins with a modal. Tense is the relationship between the form of a verb and the time to which it refers.
This section deals with the ways in which main verbs and auxiliaries can be used to construct different forms. The way in which particular forms are used to indicate particular times in relation to the time of speaking or to the time of an event is covered in paragraphs 4.7 to 4.69.
R91 When a verb is being used in a simple form, that is, the present simple or the past simple, it consists of just one word, a form of the main verb.
I feel tired.
Mary lived there for five years.
For progressive and perfect forms, one or more auxiliaries are used in combination with the main verb.
I am feeling reckless tonight.
I have lived here all my life.
R92 The first word of a finite verb phrase must agree with the subject of the clause. This affects the present simple, and all forms that begin with the present or past tense of be or the present tense of have.
For example, if the form is the present perfect and the subject is John, then the form of the auxiliary have must be has.
John has seemed worried lately.
She likes me.