You use such as a determiner and predeterminer to refer back (9.29 and 9.30).
They generally agree on which aspects of police work they like and dislike. Such a consensus was originally explained as…
The report highlights the high level of overcrowding in some prisons. In such circumstances…
Other words and expressions used for referring back are previous, above, and the former … the latter.
The previous arguments have pointed to two ways in which the system might be improved.
What is said above gives the background to what follows.
The French have two words for citizenship: ‘citoyenté’ and ‘civisme’, the former describing the status, the latter, attitude and behaviour.
referring forward
To refer forward to sections of the text, you can use:
Symptoms of the condition may include any of the following: chest pains, headache, difficulty breathing, and joint pain.
The following passage summarizes Schmidt’s views:…
The trade blockade with India, described below, resulted in severe energy shortages.
sentence connectors
Sentence connectors show the relationship between two sentences, clauses, or sections of text. The following are particularly common in academic speech and writing:
function sentence connectors indicating a further argument additionally, in addition, also, furthermore, moreover indicating a similar situation again, equally, likewise, similarly indicating contrast alternatively, in contrast, conversely, even so, however, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, although indicating cause accordingly, as a result, as a consequence, consequently, hence, thereby, therefore, thus indicating purpose in order to, so that, lest
The style of your message
Once you have decided on your message, you need to formulate it so that you can achieve the effect you are aiming for. Common ways of presenting information are described below.
Distancing
Present your text using an impersonal voice. This allows you to focus on the issues rather than on the people involved. The structures below are especially useful for avoiding I.
impersonal it
You can remove focus from people by using impersonal it (see 9.31 to 9.45).
It is almost an occupational hazard accepted by virologists.
Use impersonal it and a passive form of a reporting verb if your message is an opinion held by an unspecified group of people (see 7.69 to 7.73).
It is widely believed that this substance is harmful.
It is acknowledged that resources are unevenly distributed.
Note that you can also use a reporting verb in the passive, followed by a to-infinitive (see 7.69).
This substance is believed to be harmful.
UVB and UVA are both reported to cause skin cancer.
there is, there are
When you want to say that something exists, or you want to introduce something new, use there as a subject (see 9.46 to 9.55).
There are several claims to be considered in relation to this perspective.
There are no fewer than thirteen different species of otter.
research or text in subject position
In a conclusion or an example, do not write I have discovered…. Instead, put a word such as findings or results in subject position.
These findings suggest that there are two different processing methods.
The results show that this problem is widespread.
the passive
You can use the passive without by to describe procedures when the performer of the action does not need to be specified.
The tissue sample was removed, analysed and stored.
The engine was re-tested after the malfunction.
Note that it is important not to over-use the passive, as it can make your writing difficult to read.
verbs that indicate a change of state
Use verbs such as continue, decrease, and increase to describe events that involve a change of state (see 3.59 to 3.67).
The situation continues to be a cause for concern.
The rate of change slowed in the second half of the year.
The result of a change of state can be shown in a subordinate clause beginning with an -ing form (see 8.141).
Prices rose, leading to a fall in demand.
Appetite is lessened, resulting in weight loss and dietary problems.
Reporting
An important aspect of academic speaking and writing involves reporting (or citing) the work of other academics.
Citations can be used to explain the basis of your work, to support and illustrate your arguments, or to contrast your ideas with other writers’ theories.
Citations sometimes take the form of direct quotes; however, the reported information is usually summarized in your own words.
The following reporting verbs are commonly used in academic English to introduce cited material (see 7.5 to 7.11).
Theses verbs indicate the type of activity reported:
If the activity is: research-related mental verbal use measure think state calculate believe write estimate consider define find focus on challenge obtain
Nuttall and Gipps (1982) estimate that the direct cost of the APU was £800,000 per year.
Collins and Ellis (2001) also challenge the traditional concept of the individual.
Note that the verbs that you use will depend on your academic discipline. Research-related verbs are more common in technical and scientific writing; mental and verbal activity verbs are more common in the humanities and social sciences.
These verbs indicate your attitude to the reported materiaclass="underline"
If you think it is: valid not valid neutral use: show fail to discuss establish overlook respond demonstrate ignore comment suggest
Wenger’s data show that 43 percent of elderly people named as a confidant someone they had known for at least 50 years.