Soberer, incredibly compact in their pictorial concept and yet akin to the Renaissance in their objective viewing, were the portrait drawings of Hans Holbein, the Younger, whose sojourns in 16th-century England proved stimulating to other artists as well. Similar, if less personal than Holbein because of the stricter linearity of their work, were the drawings of the French portraitists Jean and François Clouet. In the Low Countries, where they were combined with the idealized image of Italy (as in the drawings of Lucas van Leyden), Dürer’s methods gained lasting popularity in the landscape drawings and studies “after life” by Pieter Bruegel the Elder.
Boleyn, AnneAnne Boleyn, drawing by Hans Holbein the Younger, c. 1534–35; in the British Museum, London.Courtesy of the trustees of the British Museum
Drawing acquired a pivotal significance in the period of Mannerism (c. 1525–1600), both as a document of artistic invention and as a means of its realization. da Pontormo" class="md-crosslink">Jacopo da Pontormo in Florence, Parmigianino in northern Italy, and Tintoretto in Venice used point and pen as essential and spontaneous vehicles of expression. Their drawings were clearly related to their painting, both in content and in the graphic method of sensitive contouring and daringly drawn foreshortening. 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries
In the early 17th century, Jacques Callot rose to prominence in French art: gifted as a draftsman above all, he recorded with the pen his clever inventions and great picture stories, primarily in bold abbreviations.
The importance of drawing for an artist’s growth and the widening of his horizon is attested also by the work of Peter Paul Rubens, whose studies and sketches make up an integral part of his creative achievement. In order to disseminate his pictorial themes and concept of form, he maintained his own school for draftsmen and engravers. Among the circle of Flemings around him, Jacob Jordaens and Sir Anthony Van Dyck are notable as draftsmen with a style of their own.
Hercules Seghers was among the most fascinating artists of the 17th century, a creator of drawn and etched landscapes that he continued to rework while experimenting with printing processes. From the point of view of technique and form, he was important for the greatest artist of Holland, Rembrandt. Seghers combined great inventiveness, especially in his interpretations of Old Testament motifs, and broad mastery of all the techniques of drawing. In his studio, too, drawing was emphasized as a teaching aid and a means of formal experimentation.
Most Dutch painters of the 17th century, such as the van de Velde family, Brouwer, van Ostade, Pieter Saenredam, and Paulus Potter, were also industrious draftsmen who recorded their special thematic concerns in drawings that were largely completed. Beyond serving as preparation for paintings, these were regarded as autonomous works representing the final stage of the creative process.
In 17th-century Italy, drawing by way of artistic practice and experimentation became established in the academies, especially in Bologna. More significant, however, was the continuing development of landscape drawing, as initiated by the brothers Agostino and Annibale Carracci and articulated further by Domenichino and Salvator Rosa. The French artist Claude Lorrain so developed the landscape drawing of the Roman countryside that it became almost a genre of its own; in his works, which were often intended for sale, nature study and an idealized pictorial concept are uniquely merged. In detailed studies directly before the object, he achieved a timeless validity. Like Lorrain, Nicolas Poussin also drew under the open sky. Using various techniques, he combined realistic experiences and humanistic concepts in idealizing compositions the figures and scenes of which are harmoniously integrated into a spacious landscape. This open-air painting and drawing was practiced also by some other artists who spent a considerable time in Rome—the Dutch artists Jan Asselijn, Claes Berchem, Karel Dujardin, and Adam Pijnacker, for example. For most southern European artists of the 17th century, however, drawing was a mere stage in the creation of a painting.
Antoine Watteau, too, did drawings to “keep his hand in” for his painting, although he did so with an independence that led him far beyond the immediate occasion. Most figures in the paintings from various periods of his career were based on earlier drawings. In the grand scale of his form and the attention paid to pictorial elements, he carried on in the manner of Rubens, combining it with the light esprit of the 18th century. The leading position of French art in the first half of that century was confirmed by the achievements of Franƈois Boucher, Jean-Honoré Fragonard, Hubert Robert, and Gabriel de Saint-Aubin, whose drawings include figure studies, genre-like works, and landscapes.
Saint-Aubin, Gabriel de: View of the Salon of 1765View of the Salon of 1765, black chalk, ink, and watercolour by Gabriel de Saint-Aubin, 1765; in the Louvre, Paris. 24 × 46.7 cm.© Photos.com/Jupiterimages
In contrast to the French draftsmen who brought about a flowering of the à trois crayons method on tinted paper, some artists created similar landscapes with pen and brush but with greater objective abbreviation. Mention must here be made of Venice, with the Giovanni Battista Tiepolo family, whose expansively conceived pen drawings, washed with a broad brush, call forth the kind of luminaristic effect that Francesco Guardi also used for landscape studies and imaginary scenes. These had been preceded by Canaletto’s views of Venice, composed more severely as far as tectonic (constructional) detail is concerned but nonetheless the first examples of this form of the landscape capriccio, or fantasy. The architect Giovanni Battista Piranesi made his name primarily as a draftsman who recorded views of Rome; above all, in his drawings of architecture and eerie vaults (Carceri), he left behind a body of work of great intellectual and formal forcefulness.
Veduta della Piazza di Monte Cavallo, drawing from the series Vedute di Roma by Giovanni Battista Piranesi, c. 1748–60; in the British Museum, London.Courtesy of the trustees of the British Museum; photograph, J.R. Freeman & Co. Ltd.
The Spanish painter Francisco de Goya, at the very end of the 18th and in the beginning of the 19th century, was in advance of his time in the way in which he handled his themes. Forming an odd contrast to the court-painter’s pictures, his brush-and-sanguine drawings are rather more closely tied to his cycles of etchings. He combined the luminaristic effects of Tiepolo’s drawings with the dramatic impact of a Rembrandt chiaroscuro.
Also at the turn of the 19th century is an artist whose main work was that of a draftsman: the English caricaturist and social satirist Thomas Rowlandson, who produced colourful and distinctive watercolours. The late 18th and, even more, the early 19th century produced a drawing style that, in accordance with both the Neoclassical and the Romantic ideal, emphasized once more the linear element. In Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, idealistic Neoclassicism found an exemplary expression of strict linearity, and the pencil drawing became a downright classical form. The Nazarenes and Romantics in Rome and the Alpine region (Joseph Anton Koch, the brothers Friedrich and Ferdinand Olivier, and Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld) as well as those in north Germany (Philipp Otto Runge and Caspar David Friedrich) were more lyrical but equally rigorous in the use of the hardpoint; after a long time, they were the first northern artists to have made a significant contribution to the history of drawing. Among 19th-century artists, the emphasis on delineation was characteristic also of Moritz von Schwind in Germany and John Millais in England. (In the Neoclassical phase of the 20th century it was renewed, in a more open and “handwriting” fashion, by Thomas Eakins in the United States as well as by Picasso, Matisse, and Amedeo Modigliani in France.) The drawings of Eugène Delacroix, while preserving plastic qualities, show a broader stroke and are thus more pictorial. Honoré Daumier, active in all mediums primarily as a draftsman, utilized pictorial chiaroscuro effects in forcible statements of social criticism.