The influence of progressive education advanced slowly during the first decades of the 20th century. Nevertheless, a number of progressive schools were established, including the Play School and the Walden School in New York City; the Shady Hill School in Cambridge, Mass.; the Elementary School of the University of Iowa; and the Oak Lane Day School in Philadelphia. Helen Parkhurst’s Dalton Plan, introduced in 1920 at Dalton, Mass., pioneered individually paced learning of broad topics. Carleton Washburne’s Winnetka Plan, instituted in 1919 at Winnetka, Ill., viewed learning as a continuous process guided by the child’s own goals and capabilities. The Gary Plan, developed in 1908 at Gary, Ind., by William Wirt, established a “complete school,” embracing work, study, and play for all grades on a full-year basis.
The spread of progressive education became more rapid from the 1920s on and was not confined to any particular country. In the United States the Progressive Education Association (PEA) was formed in 1919. The PEA did much to further the cause of progressive education until it ended, as an organization, in 1955. In 1921 Europe’s leading progressives formed the New Education Fellowship, later renamed the World Education Fellowship.
The notions expressed by progressive education influenced public school systems everywhere. Some of the movement’s lasting effects were seen in activity programs, imaginative writing and reading classes, projects linked to the community, flexible classroom space, dramatics and informal activities, discovery methods of learning, self-assessment systems, and programs for the development of citizenship and responsibility. Child-centred education
Proponents of the child-centred approach to education typically argued that the school should be fitted to the needs of the child and not the child to the school. These ideas, first explored in Europe, notably in Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s Émile (1762) and in Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi’s How Gertrude Teaches Her Children (1801), were implemented in American systems by pioneering educators such as Francis W. Parker. Parker became superintendent of schools in Quincy, Mass., in 1875. He assailed the mechanical, assembly-line methods of traditional schools and stressed “quality teaching,” by which he meant strategies such as activity, creative self-expression, excursions, understanding the individual, and the development of personality.
Francis ParkerCourtesy of Chicago Historical Society
A different approach to child-centred education arose as a result of the study and care of the physically and mentally handicapped. Teachers had to invent their own methods to meet the needs of such children, because the ordinary schools did not supply them. When these methods proved successful with handicapped children, there arose the question of whether they might not yield even better results with nonhandicapped children. During the first decade of the 20th century, the educationists Maria Montessori of Rome and Ovide Decroly of Brussels both successfully applied their educational inventions in schools for ordinary boys and girls.
The Montessori method’s underlying assumption was the child’s need to escape from the domination of parent and teacher. According to Montessori, children, who are the unhappy victims of adult suppression, have been compelled to adopt defensive measures foreign to their real nature in the struggle to hold their own. The first move toward the reform of education, therefore, should be directed toward educators: to enlighten their consciences, to remove their perceptions of superiority, and to make them humble and passive in their attitudes toward the young. The next move should be to provide a new environment in which the child has a chance to live a life of his own. In the Montessori method, the senses are separately trained by means of apparatuses calculated to enlist spontaneous interest at the successive stages of mental growth. By similar self-educative devices, the child is led to individual mastery of the basic skills of everyday life and then to schoolwork in arithmetic and grammar.
The Decroly method was essentially a program of work based on centres of interest and educative games. Its basic feature was the workshop-classroom, in which children freely went about their own occupations. Behind the complex of individual activities was a carefully organized scheme of work based on an analysis of the fundamental needs of the child. The principle of giving priority to wholes rather than to parts was emphasized in teaching children to read, write, and count, and care was taken to reach a comprehensive view of the experiences of life. The Montessori and the Decroly methods spread throughout the world and widely influenced attitudes and practices of educating young children.
Pestalozzian principles also encouraged the introduction of music education into early childhood programs. Research showed that music has an undeniable effect on the development of the young child, especially in such areas as movement, temper, and speech and listening patterns. The four most common methods of early childhood music education were those developed by Émile Jaques-Dalcroze, Carl Orff, and Zoltán Kodály, as well as the Comprehensive Musicianship approach. The Dalcroze method emphasized movement; Orff, dramatization; Kodály, singing games; and Comprehensive Musicianship, exploration and discovery. Another popular method, developed by the Japanese violinist Shinichi Suzuki, was based on the theory that young children learn music in the same way that they learn their first language. Scientific-realist education
The scientific-realist education movement began in 1900 when Édouard Claparède, then a doctor at the Psychological Laboratory of the University of Geneva, responded to an appeal from the women in charge of special schools for “backward” and “abnormal” children in Geneva. The experience allowed him to realize some of the defects of ordinary schools. Not as much thought was given, he argued, to the minds of children as was given to their feet. Their shoes were of different sizes and shapes, made to fit their feet. When would there be schools to measure? The psychological principles needed to adapt education to individual children were expounded in his Psychologie de l’enfant et pédagogie experimentale (1905; Experimental Pedagogy and the Psychology of the Child). Later Claparède took a leading part in the creation of the J.-J. Rousseau Institute in Geneva, a school of educational sciences to which came students from all over the world.
Theorists such as Claparède hoped to provide a scientific basis for education, an aim that was furthered by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, who studied in a philosophical and psychological manner the intellectual development of children. Piaget argued, on the basis of his observations, that development of intelligence exhibits four chief stages and that the sequence is everywhere the same, although the ages in the stages of development may vary from culture to culture.
The first stage takes place during infancy, when children, even before they learn to speak, put objects together (addition) and then separate them (subtraction), perceiving them as collections, rings, networks, and groups. By the age of two or three, a basis has been laid. The children have developed kinetic muscular intelligence to some degree—they can think with their fingers, their hands, and their bodies. Aided by language, the capacity for symbolic thinking slowly develops, constituting the second stage. Up to the age of seven or eight, some of the fundamental categories of adult thinking are still absent; there is seldom any notion, for instance, of cause-and-effect relationships.