14. Some of the main work on lesioned lobes in rats was done by Victor Dermenberg, a psychologist at the University of Connecticut.
15. Left hemisphere lesions and joviality: G. Gianotti, "Emotional behavior and hemispheric side of lesion," Cortex, 8,1972.
16. The case of the happier stroke patient was reported by Mary K. Morris, of the Department of Neurology at the University of Florida, at the International Neuro-physiological Society Meeting, February 13-16,1991, in San Antonio.
17. Prefrontal cortex and working memory: Lynn D. Selemon et al., "Prefrontal Cortex," American Journal of Psychiatry, 152,1995.
18. Faulty frontal lobes: Philip Harden and Robert Pihl, "Cognitive Function, Cardiovascular Reactivity, and Behavior in Boys at High Risk for Alcoholism," Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104,1995.
19. Prefrontal cortex: Antonio Damasio, Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain (New York: Grosset/Putnam, 1994).
PART TWO: THE NATURE OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Chapter 3. When Smart Is Dumb
1. Jason H.'s story was reported in "Warning by a Valedictorian Who Faced Prison," in The New York Times (June 23,1992).
2. One observer notes: Howard Gardner, "Cracking Open the IQ Box," The American Prospect, Winter 1995.
3. Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1994), p. 66.
4. George Vaillant, Adaptation to Life (Boston: Little, Brown, 1977). The average SAT score of the Harvard group was 584, on a scale where 800 is tops. Dr. Vaillant, now at Harvard University Medical School, told me about the relatively poor predictive value of test scores for life success in this group of advantaged men.
5. J. K. Felsman and G. E. Vaillant, "Resilient Children as Adults: A 40-Year Study," in E. J. Anderson and B. J. Cohler, eds., The Invulnerable Child (New York: Guilford Press, 1987).
6. Karen Arnold, who did the study of valedictorians with Terry Denny at the University of Illinois, was quoted in The Chicago Tribune (May 29,1992).
7. Project Spectrum: Principal colleagues of Gardner in developing Project Spectrum were Mara Krechevsky and David Feldman.
8. I interviewed Howard Gardner about his theory of multiple intelligences in "Rethinking the Value of Intelligence Tests," in The New York Times Education Supplement (Nov. 3,1986) and several times since.
9. The comparison of IQ tests and Spectrum abilities is reported in a chapter, coauthored with Mara Krechevsky, in Howard Gardner, Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice (New York: Basic Books, 1993).
10. The nutshell summary is from Howard Gardner, Multiple Intelligences, p. 9.
11. Howard Gardner and Thomas Hatch, "Multiple Intelligences Go to School," Educational Researcher IS, 8 (1989).
12. The model of emotional intelligence was first proposed in Peter Salovey and John D. Mayer, "Emotional Intelligence," Imagination, Cognition, and Personality 9 (1990), pp. 185-211.
13. Practical intelligence and people skills: Robert J. Sternberg, Beyond I.Q. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
14. The basic definition of "emotional intelligence" is in Salovey and Mayer, "Emotional Intelligence," p. 189.
15. IQ vs. emotional intelligence: Jack Block, University of California at Berkeley, unpublished manuscript, February, 1995. Block uses the concept "ego resilience" rather than emotional intelligence, but notes that its main components include emotional self-regulation, an adaptive impulse control, a sense of self-efficacy, and social intelligence. Since these are main elements of emotional intelligence, ego resilience can be seen as a surrogate measure for emotional intelligence, much like SAT scores are for IQ. Block analyzed data from a longitudinal study of about a hundred men and women in their teen years and early twenties, and used statistical methods to assess the personality and behavioral correlates of high IQ independent of emotional intelligence, and emotional intelligence apart from IQ. There is, he finds, a modest correlation between IQ and ego resilience, but the two are independent constructs.
Chapter 4. Know Thyself
1. My usage of self-awareness refers to a self-reflexive, introspective attention to one's own experience, sometimes called mindfulness.
2. See also: Jon Kabat-Zinn, Wherever You Go, There You Are (New York: Hyperion, 1994).
3. The observing ego: An insightful comparison of the psychoanalyst's attentional stance and self-awareness appears in Mark Epstein's Thoughts Without a Thinker (New York: Basic Books, 1995). Epstein notes that if this ability is cultivated deeply, it can drop the self-consciousness of the observer and become a "more flexible and braver 'developed ego,' capable of embracing all of life."
4. William Styron, Darkness Visible: A Memoir of Madness (New York: Random House, 1990), p. 64.
5. John D. Mayer and Alexander Stevens, "An Emerging Understanding of the Reflective (Meta) Experience of Mood," unpublished manuscript (1993).
6. Mayer and Stevens, "An Emerging Understanding." Some of the terms for these emotional self-awareness styles are my own adaptations of their categories.
7. The intensity of emotions: Much of this work was done by or with Randy Larsen, a former graduate student of Diener's now at the University of Michigan.
8. Gary, the emotionally bland surgeon, is described in Hillel I. Swiller, "Alexithymia: Treatment Utilizing Combined Individual and Group Psychotherapy," International Journal for Group Psychotherapy 38, 1 (1988), pp. 47-61.
9. Emotional illiterate was the term used by M. B. Freedman and B. S. Sweet, "Some Specific Features of Group Psychotherapy," International Journal for Group Psychotherapy 4 (1954), pp. 335-68.
10. The clinical features of alexithymia are described in Graeme J. Taylor, "Alexithymia: History of the Concept," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychiatric Association in Washington, DC (May 1986).
11. The description of alexithymia is from Peter Sifneos, "Affect, Emotional Conflict, and Deficit: An Overview," Psychotherapy-and-Psychosomatics 56 (1991), pp. 116-22.
12. The woman who did not know why she was crying is reported in H. Warnes, "Alexithymia, Clinical and Therapeutic Aspects," Psychotherapy-and-Psychosomatics 46 (1986), pp. 96-104.
13. Role of emotions in reasoning: Damasio, Descartes' Error.
14. Unconscious fear: The snake studies are described in Kagan, Galen's Prophecy.
Chapter 5. Passion's Slaves
1. For details on the ratio of positive to negative feelings and well-being, see Ed Diener and Randy J. Larsen, "The Experience of Emotional Well-Being," in Michael Lewis and Jeannette Haviland, eds., Handbook of Emotions (New York: Guilford Press, 1993).
2. I interviewed Diane Tice about her research on how well people shake off bad moods in December 1992. She published her findings on anger in a chapter she wrote with her husband, Roy Baumeister, in Daniel Wegner and James Pennebaker, eds., Handbook of Mental Control v. 5 (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1993).