3. Bill collectors: also described in Arlie Hochschild, The Managed Heart (New York: Free Press, 1980).
4. The case against anger, and for self-control, is based largely on Diane Tice and Roy F. Baumeister, "Controlling Anger: Self-Induced Emotion Change," in Wegner and Pennebaker, Handbook of Mental Control. But see also Carol Tavris, Anger: The Misunderstood Emotion (New York: Touchstone, 1989).
5. The research on rage is described in Dolf Zillmann, "Mental Control of Angry Aggression," in Wegner and Pennebaker, Handbook of Mental Control.
6. The soothing walk: quoted in Tavris, Anger: The Misunderstood Emotion, p. 135.
7. Redford Williams's strategies for controlling hostility are detailed in Redford Williams and Virginia Williams, Anger Kills (New York: Times Books, 1993).
8. Venting anger does not dispel it: see, for example, S. K. Mallick and B. R. McCandless, "A Study of Catharsis Aggression," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 4 (1966). For a summary of this research, see Tavris, Anger: The Misunderstood Emotion.
9. When lashing out in anger is effective: Tavris, Anger: The Misunderstood Emotion.
10. The work of worrying: Lizabeth Roemer and Thomas Borkovec, "Worry: Unwanted Cognitive Activity That Controls Unwanted Somatic Experience," in Wegner and Pennebaker, Handbook of Mental Control.
11. Fear of germs: David Riggs and Edna Foa, "Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder," in David Barlow, ed., Clinical Handbook of Psychological Disorders (New York: Guilford Press, 1993).
12. The worried patient was quoted in Roemer and Borkovec, "Worry," p. 221.
13. Therapies for anxiety disorder: see, for example, David H. Barlow, ed., Clinical Handbook of Psychological Disorders (New York: Guilford Press, 1993).
14. Styron's depression: William Styron, Darkness Visible: A Memoir of Madness (New York: Random House, 1990).
15. The worries of the depressed are reported in Susan Nolen-Hoeksma, "Sex Differences in Control of Depression," in Wegner and Pennebaker, Handbook of Mental Control, p. 307.
16. Therapy for depression: K. S. Dobson, "A Meta-analysis of the Efficacy of Cognitive Therapy for Depression," Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 57 (1989).
17. The study of depressed people's thought patterns is reported in Richard Wenzlaff, "The Mental Control of Depression," in Wegner and Pennebaker, Handbook of Mental Control.
18. Shelley Taylor et al., "Maintaining Positive Illusions in the Face of Negative Information," Journal of Clinical and Social Psychology 8 (1989).
19. The repressing college student is from Daniel A. Weinberger, "The Construct Validity of the Repressive Coping Style," in J. L. Singer, ed., Repression and Dissociation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990). Weinberger, who developed the concept of repressors in early studies with Gary F. Schwartz and Richard Davidson, has become the leading researcher on the topic.
Chapter 6. The Master Aptitude
1. The terror of the exam: Daniel Goleman, Vital Lies, Simple Truths: The Psychology of Self-Deception (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1985).
2. Working memory: Alan Baddeley, Working Memory (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986).
3. Prefrontal cortex and working memory: Patricia Goldman-Rakic, "Cellular and Circuit Basis of Working Memory in Prefrontal Cortex of Nonhuman Primates," Progress in Brain Research, 85, 1990; Daniel Weinberger, "A Connectionist Approach to the Prefrontal Cortex," Journal of Neuropsychiatry 5 (1993).
4. Motivation and elite performance: Anders Ericsson, "Expert Performance: Its Structure and Acquisition," American Psychologist (Aug. 1994).
5. Asian IQ advantage: Herrnstein and Murray, The Bell Curve.
6. IQ and occupation of Asian-Americans: James Flynn, Asian-American Achievement Beyond IQ (New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1991).
7. The study of delay of gratification in four-year-olds was reported in Yuichi Shoda, Walter Mischel, and Philip K. Peake, "Predicting Adolescent Cognitive and Self-regulatory Competencies From Preschool Delay of Gratification," Developmental Psychology, 26, 6 (1990), pp. 978-86.
8. SAT scores of impulsive and self-controlled children: The analysis of SAT data was done by Phil Peake, a psychologist at Smith College.
9. IQ vs. delay as predictors of SAT scores: personal communication from Phil Peake, psychologist at Smith College, who analyzed the SAT data in Walter Mischel's study of delay of gratification.
10. Impulsivity and delinquency: See the discussion in: Jack Block, "On the Relation Between IQ, Impulsivity, and Delinquency," Journal of Abnormal Psychology 104 (1995).
11. The worried mother: Timothy A. Brown et al., "Generalized Anxiety Disorder," in David H. Barlow, ed., Clinical Handbook of Psychological Disorders (New York: Guilford Press, 1993).
12. Air traffic controllers and anxiety: W. E. Collins et al., "Relationships of Anxiety Scores to Academy and Field Training Performance of Air Traffic Control Specialists," FAA Office of Aviation Medicine Reports (May 1989).
13. Anxiety and academic performance: Bettina Seipp, "Anxiety and Academic Performance: A Meta-analysis," Anxiety Research 4, 1 (1991).
14. Worriers: Richard Metzger et al., "Worry Changes Decision-making: The Effects of Negative Thoughts on Cognitive Processing," Journal of Clinical Psychology (Jan. 1990).
15. Ralph Haber and Richard Alpert, "Test Anxiety," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 13 (1958).
16. Anxious students: Theodore Chapin, "The Relationship of Trait Anxiety and Academic Performance to Achievement Anxiety," Journal of College Student Development (May 1989).
17. Negative thoughts and test scores: John Hunsley, "Internal Dialogue During Academic Examinations," Cognitive Therapy and Research (Dec. 1987).
18. The internists given a gift of candy: Alice Isen et al., "The Influence of Positive Affect on Clinical Problem Solving," Medical Decision Making (July-Sept. 1991).
19. Hope and a bad grade: C. R. Snyder et al., "The Will and the Ways: Development and Validation of an Individual-Differences Measure of Hope," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60, 4 (1991), p. 579.
20. I interviewed C. R. Snyder in The New York Times (Dec. 24, 1991).
21. Optimistic swimmers: Martin Seligman, Learned Optimism (New York: Knopf, 1991).
22. A realistic vs. naive optimism: see, for example, Carol Whalen et al., "Optimism in Children's Judgments of Health and Environmental Risks," Health Psychology 13 (1994).
23. I interviewed Martin Seligman about optimism in The New York Times (Feb. 3,1987).
24. I interviewed Albert Bandura about self-efficacy in The New York Times(Mzy 8,1988).
25. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, "Play and Intrinsic Rewards," Journal of Humanistic Psychology 15, 3 (1975).
26. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience, 1st ed. (New York: Harper and Row, 1990).
27. "Like a waterfall": Newsweek (Feb. 28, 1994).
28. I interviewed Dr. Csikszentmihalyi in The New York Times (Mar. 4, 1986).