At the first stage (200–133 ВС) for extortion of more higher profits, the Hsiung-nu have attempted to alternate the war and raids with the periods of a peaceful co-habitation with China [see Barfield 1981; 1992]. The first raids have been carried out to obtain a booty for all member of the imperial confederation of nomads regardless of their status. The Shan-уй should enlist the support of a majority of tribes being members of the confederation. After the devastating raid, the Shan-уй has, as rule, send the ambassadors to China with an offer to conclude a new agreement of 'A peace and relationship' pr, alternatively, the nomads have continued their raids until the Chinese have applied with an offer to conclude a new agreement. After concluding the agreement and obtaining gifts, the raids have ceased for any time. However, after a time when a booty plundered by simple nomads has finished or become worthless, the cattle-breeders have against begun to demand from chiefs and Shan-yii a satisfaction if their interests. By virtue of the fact the border, the Shan-yu has been forced to 'release a steam' and to issue an order to renew to raids.
The second stage (129-58 ВС) of the Hsiung-nu — Han relations is a period of governing of the Han emperor Wu-di who decided to abolish the strategy of farming from active expansion to the North. The war has been waged with a variable success and rendered lifeless both parties. None of the parties has neached the final victory. As a whole, an experience of a campaign showed that nomads in the steppe war, in spite of munerical superiority of the Chinese, have the unquestionable advantages as before. As a sole important achievement of the aggressive antiHsiung-nu policy of Wi-di, a strengthening of the Han positions in the East Turkestan should be considered. However a 'cold war' between the Steppe and China continued as far as a commencement of civil war within the Hsiung-nu tribes.
The third stage (56 ВС — 9 AD) of the Hsiung-nu — Chinese relations can be marked off since the time of assumption by the Shan-yii Hu-han-yeh of vassalage from the Han emperor. A policy of farming from the nomads by 'gifts' was formally replaced by the system of 'tributal' relations. The Hsiung-nu have undertaken to recognize a suzerainty of Han and to pay a nominal 'tribute'. For this, the emperor has provided the Shan-уй his protection and has given to him as a vassal the reply gifts. In fact, the vassalage of nomads camouflaged in terms reflecting the Chinese ideological superiority has been an old policy of extortion on the side of nomads with the only difference that the reply gifts of the Chinese emperor were vastly larger than before. In addition, as may be necessary, the Shan-yii has obtained from China the agricultural products to support his citizens.
The fourth, last stage (9–48 AD) of relations between the Han empire and Hsiung-nu imperial confederation was similar, by its content, to the first stage. As a pretext for a rupture of peaceful relations, the territorial claims of the Chinese emperor-pretender Wang Mang, his intervention in internal affairs of nomads and, finally, substitution of the Shan-уй seal by the Chinese ambassadors have served. Judging from all this, as opposed to the first stage of relations between the Hsiung-nu and China, the nomads have somewhat changed an emphasis of their foreign-polity strategy towards the stimulation of raids to the Han territory. It is possible this was related to the weakening of the frontier might of China and instable political situation within the country. If earlier the northern frontiers of China were protected using a powerful network of the signaling-guard duties and the towns and most crucial sections of the Great Wall were protected by armed to the teeth garrisons then, at the beginning of the Late dynasty of Han (since 23 AD), a maintenance of such army was beyond the Chinese government's means. The raids were found to be more safe and unpunished for inhabitants of steppe regions, that earlier.
Shan-уй had numerous relatives who belonged to his 'king's' clan of Luan-ti: brothers and nephews, wife's, sons and daughters etc. Besides the relatives of Shan-yii other noble 'families' (clans): Hu-yan, Lan Hsti-pu and Quilin have been among the highest Hsiung-nu aristocracy. The next level in the Hsiung-nu hierarchy has been occupied by the tribal chiefs and elders. In the annals, they are mentioned, as a rule, as 'subordinate kings', 'chief commandants', 'household administrators', chii-ch'U officials [Лидай 1958: 17; see also Groot 1921: 55; Watson 1961a: 163–164; Материалы 1968: 40]. Probably, a part of'chiefs of a thousand' were tribal chiefs. The 'chiefs of a hundred' and 'chiefs of ten' were, most likely, clan leaders of different ranks. The economic judicial, cult, fiscal and military functions were considered as the responsibilities of chiefs and elders. Slightly lower at the hierarchical ladder, the chiefs of non-Hsiung-nu tribes being members of the imperial confederation have been. The Hsiung-nu had a particular strata of service nobility — advisers — immigrants from China and bodyguards.
Basic population of the Hsiung-nu empire has consisted of ordinary nomads — cattle-breeders. Based on some indirect data, one can assume that many most important features of economy, social organization, way of life were essentially little different from the features of the nomads of the Mongolian steppes of more recent times [Egami 1956; 1963; Крадин 1999].
In the written sources, there is no information concerning the different categories of poor persons and persons not processing full right who have been engaged in cattle-breeding in the Hsiung-nu society. It is alto, unknown how were spread the slave-owning relations among the Hsiung-nu although the sources are gay with the data of a stealing by nomads of farmers. A lack of development of a slavery in the Hsiung-nu society can be explained by the cross-cultural anthropological studies which clearly demonstrate than in none of the pastoral societies, a slavery has not be widely spread [for details see Нибур 1907: 237–265; Хазанов 1975: 133–148; Khazanov 1984/1994: 160–161; Крадин 1992: 100–111 etc.]. Those researchers are most likely right [Гумилев 1960:147; Давыдова 1975: 145; Rudenko 1969; Хазанов 1975: 143–144], who believe that the overwhelming majority of prisoners of war in the Hsiung-nu societies has been engaged in agricultural and handicraft in the specially established settlements. However, as to social-economic and legal position, the majority of these persons (many of these people were free deserters) have been no slavers. Their social status has been most likely unequaclass="underline" from the conditional 'vassalage' to some similarity of serfdom. The Ivolginskoye fortes settlement near the city Ulan-Ude in Buryaita was a classical settlement of such type [Davydova 1968; Давыдова 1985; 1995; 1996; Hayashi 1984 etc.].
The archaeological data supplement to a great extent an information of writes annals. Even before a formation of the nomadic empire the social stratification traced on the archaeological data, has existed in the Hsiung-nu society. At the foot of the society, the ordinary burial places of ordinary nomads are. Above, there are graves of the representatives of the tribal ruling clique in which a great quantity of adornments for chariots, rare arms, jewelry and plates with highly artistic images of animals of gold, rods, pommes of banners etc. (burial ground of Aluchzaiden and Hsugoupan in the Inner Mongolia in China [Тянь Гуацзинь, Го Сусинь 1980; 1980а]).