Each of the fasts of the Jewish religious year recognizes an important event in the history of the Jewish people and Judaism. ʿAsara be-Ṭevet (Fast of Ṭevet 10) commemorates the beginning of the siege of Jerusalem by Nebuchadrezzar II, king of Babylonia, in 588 bce. Shivaʿ ʿAsar be-Tammuz (Fast of Tammuz 17) commemorates the first breach in the wall of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 ce. It initiates three weeks of semi-mourning that culminate with Tisha be-Av. Tisha be-Av (Fast of Av 9) commemorates the destruction of the First and Second Temples in 586 bce and 70 ce. The most solemn of the five fasts, its self-denials are more rigorous than those prescribed for the others, and, like Yom Kippur, the fast begins at sunset. The book of Lamentations is read at the evening service, followed by poetic laments that are also recited on Tisha be-Av morning. Tzom Gedaliahu (Fast of Gedaliah) commemorates the slaying of Gedaliah, governor of Judah after the destruction of the First Temple. Taʿanit Esther (Fast of Esther), which commemorates Esther’s fast (compare Esther 4:16), is first mentioned in gaonic literature. The commemorative apsects of the fasts are closely associated with their penitential aspects, all of which find expression in the liturgy. Thus, Jews not only relive the tragic history of their people with each fast but are also afforded an opportunity to search within themselves and focus on their own (and their people’s) present and future. Penitential prayers (seliḥot) are recited on all fasts, and the Torah is read at the morning and afternoon services. The lesser holidays
A major festival in the biblical period, Rosh Ḥodesh (First Day of the Month) gradually lost most of its festive character. Since Talmudic times, it has been customary to recite Hallel on Rosh Ḥodesh. In the medieval period, aside from the liturgical practices carried over from the Talmudic period, it was celebrated with a festive meal. Always more diligently observed in Palestine than in the Diaspora, attempts to revive its full festive character have been made in modern Israel.
First mentioned in the Mishna, where it marks the New Year for tithing purposes, Ṭu bi-Shevaṭ (15th of Shevaṭ: New Year for Trees) assumed a festive character in the gaonic period. In the medieval period it became customary to eat assorted fruits on the holiday. In modern times it has been associated with the planting of trees in Israel.
Lag ba-ʿOmer (33rd Day of the ʿOmer Counting) is a joyous interlude in the otherwise-somber period of the ʿOmer Counting (i.e., of the 49 days to Shavuot), which is traditionally observed as a time of semi-mourning. Usually celebrated as a school holiday with outings, it is first mentioned in medieval sources, which attribute its origin to the cessation of a plague that was decimating the students of Akiba, an influential rabbinic sage of the 2nd century, and to the anniversary of the death of another great rabbi, Simeon ben Yoḥai (died c. 170 ce). The situation today
Modern attitudes toward the Sabbath and festivals vary considerably. Western secular Jews often are ignorant of, or choose to neglect, traditional observances. Attitudes of committed Jews in the Western world mostly reflect accepted Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform practice; for example, driving to synagogue services on the Sabbath is unthinkable in Orthodox circles, a matter of dispute among Conservative rabbis, and common practice for Reform Jews. Among Orthodox Jews, who best preserve the traditional observances, contemporary discussion centres mostly on technological advances and their effect on Halakhic practice. Whether or not hearing aids may be worn on the Sabbath and how crossing the international dateline affects the observance of Sabbaths and festivals typify the sort of problem addressed in Orthodox responsa (“replies” to questions on law and observance). Discussion in modern Conservative literature has raised the possibility of abolishing the obligatory character of the additional festival days in the Diaspora (except for the second day of Rosh Hashana), thus unifying Jewish practice throughout the world. Reform Jews, the most innovative of the three groups, observe neither the additional festival days (including the second day of Rosh Hashana) nor the fasts and have modified the liturgy and the observances of the holidays. More-radical Reform congregations have experimented freely with sound and light effects and other novel forms of synagogue service.
In Israel the Sabbath is the national day of rest, and Jewish holidays are vacation periods. Municipal ordinances govern public observance of the Sabbath and festivals; their enactment and enforcement vary with the political influence of the local Orthodox Jewish community. Attempts to interpret festivals along nationalistic lines are common; some kibbutzim (communal farms) stress the agricultural significance of the festivals. Independence Day is a national holiday; the preceding day, Remembrance Day, commemorates Israel’s war dead. Yom Hashoah (Holocaust Remembrance and Heroism Day)—marking the systematic destruction of European Jewry between 1933 and 1945 and recalling the short-lived ghetto uprisings—is observed officially on Nisan 27, but many religious Israelis prefer to observe it on Ṭebet 10 (a fast day), now called Yom HaKaddish Haklali (the day on which the mourner’s prayer is recited). Since the Six-Day War of June 1967, Iyyar 28—Liberation of Jerusalem Day—is celebrated unofficially by many Israelis (see Arab-Israeli wars). Appropriate services are conducted on all the aforementioned holidays by most segments of Israel’s religious community.
In Israel and the Diaspora, Jewish theologians often stress the timelessness and contemporaneity of holiday observances. Nevertheless, “revised” Passover Haggadot (plural of Haggada), in which contemporary issues are accorded a central position, appear regularly. Art and iconography The anti-iconic principle and its modifications
Although the Second Commandment (Exodus 20:4; Deuteronomy 5:8), “You shall not make yourself a graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth,” has been understood as absolutely prohibiting any and all artistic representation, this is not the only possible interpretation of these words. What is intended is a prohibition against the construction of idols, which were objects of worship in the cultural area in which the Israelites dwelt. Even in the Bible there are reports of artistic activity in the construction of the tent sanctuary and its ritual vessels (Exodus 25–31) and of the Temple in Jerusalem (1 Kings 6–7). The literalness with which the commandment was interpreted depended on the larger situation of the community, so that when there was external pressure toward religious conformity, such as during the reign of Antiochus IV Epiphanes in Antioch (175–164 bce), the anti-iconic attitude sharpened. During the Roman occupation of Israel, the presence of battle standards containing animal representations was looked upon as an affront, while extreme pietists would not even handle Roman coinage because of the images stamped on it. On the other hand, the walls of a 3rd-century-ce synagogue in Dura-Europus in Syria are covered from floor to ceiling with biblical scenes including human representations, and a number of synagogues in Palestine had elaborate mosaic floors decorated with the signs of the zodiac, representations of the seasons, and the like. Further, illuminated manuscripts from medieval Europe were frequently decorated with biblical figures, some quite clearly copied from Christian prototypes. There is also a fascinating image in a Haggada in which the human figures have bird heads. Synagogues from a later—though pre-emancipation—period (before the 18th century) were often decorated with animal representations. In the modern period the use of human representations has not been completely avoided, though nothing like the decorations of Dura-Europus has appeared. Ceremonial objects and symbols