The next group of readings comes from the medieval and early modern periods. In the first, Augustine, the Bishop of Hippo and one of the greatest philosophers of the early Middle Ages, argues that those who defend true principles must learn the art of rhetoric so that they are not defeated by those who advocate false ones. In the next reading, the Mexican poet and nun Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz argues that both women and men have a responsibility to study true principles and good books.
After these ancient and early modern readings, the chapter fast forwards to the twentieth century, where the study of language and rhetoric has been vital to the emergence of modern culture and contemporary educational institutions. The first selection from the twentieth century, Wayne Booth's "The Rhetorical Stance," argues that the art of rhetoric requires writers to maintain a delicate balance between what they want to say, the expectations of their audience, and their own strengths and weaknesses as writers. This definition of rhetoric has since been widely adopted.
The chapter ends with three contemporary discussions of language and rhetoric. In "How to Tame a Wild Tongue," the Chicana writer Gloria Anzaldua argues that robbing people of their native tongue is equivalent to robbing them of their dignity and political rights. In her Nobel Prize acceptance speech, novelist Toni Morrison explains that with the great power of language comes an equally great responsibility to use it wisely. And finally, in "Networked Politics," the Turkish writer and scholar Zeynep Tufekci explores the way that rhetoric works on the social media platforms that now dominate communication across the world.
Language and rhetoric are integral parts of modern life. Most people today do not give speeches in great assemblies, but most write memos and emails, and engage in debate. All of these acts are fundamentally rhetoricaclass="underline" they involve a writer, an audience, and an act of persuasion. What forms of persuasion are most effective? What moral responsibilities come with persuading other people to help you accomplish your goals? When does language become a tool of ignorance and oppression rather than of education and liberation? These questions have been with us since the days of the Athenian democracy, and they remain vital to the health of our society.
aeschylus
The Eumenides
[458 BCE]
THE ATHENIAN PLAYWRIGHT AESCHYLUS (circa 525-circa 455 bce) is often described as the father of Greek tragedy. He is the first of the three great tragedians—the others being Sophocles (circa 497-circa 406 bce) and Euripides (circa 480-circa 406 bce)—whose plays have survived and are still regularly performed all over the world. Scholars estimate that Aeschylus wrote between seventy and ninety plays, only seven of which have survived.
Aeschylus's most famous works are the three plays of The Oresteia, which center on Agamemnon, a leader of the Greek soldiers, and the ten-year siege known as the Trojan War. According to legend, Agamemnon sailed to Troy to recapture the most beautiful woman in all of Greece, Helen, who had been seduced and spirited away by the Trojan prince, Paris. After a long battle, the Greeks defeated the Trojans and burned their city to the ground.
Before setting out for Troy, in order to please the gods and secure favorable winds for the journey, Agamemnon sacrificed his daughter. Agamemnon, the first play in the trilogy, takes place ten years later when Agamemnon returns to his home in triumph. His wife, Clytemnestra, has never forgiven him for killing their daughter, and she plots to have him murdered upon his return. The second play, The Libation Bearers, dramatizes the horrible dilemma faced by Agamemnon's son, Orestes. Under Greek law and custom, Orestes must avenge his father's death, which, in this case, requires him to commit one of the worst sins imaginable: killing his own mother.
The following selection is drawn from The Eumenides, the final play in The Oresteia. When the play begins, Orestes is being tormented by the Furies, the divine beings charged with driving to madness those who commit terrible acts of violence. The Furies serve as both the Chorus—a group of characters that speak in unison and in the first person to comment on the action occurring in the play—and antagonist. They argue that as one who has killed his mother, Orestes is subject to their jurisdiction and should be tormented until he goes mad. But Orestes is protected by the Greek gods Athena and Apollo. Apollo believes that they can browbeat the Furies into submission with physical force. Athena, however, knows that she can persuade them through argument.
As an Olympian goddess, Athena has more power than the Furies, but not enough to prevent them from destroying her city of Athens, which she is in the process of establishing. She therefore appoints a jury of Athenian citizens to try the case. Athena eventually wins over the Furies and they become the Eumenides, or "Kindly Ones" of Athens. Athena's strategy for dealing with this situation has
become a classic example of how to achieve victory through persuasion when it cannot be obtained through physical force.
The text in this selection is accompanied by a drawing on a Grecian urn depicting the action of the play. Orestes is shown seated, holding the sword that he used to kill his mother. Apollo, with Athena behind him, stands over Orestes holding a sacrificial pig, whose blood, according to Greek religion, rids one of guilt. The Furies are asleep to the side, but the ghost of Clytemnestra is trying to awaken them to do their duty and persecute Orestes. This painting identifies those elements of the text that its original audience considered most important and therefore serves as one of the earliest commentaries on the play.
oresteia, circa 380-370 BCE. Louvre, Paris / Erich Lessing/Art Resource.
ATHENA
The numbers of the votes are equal—thus, this man's acquitted of the murder charge.1
ORESTES
O Pallas Athena,2 you've saved my house. I'd lost my homeland—now you give it back,
and anyone in Greece can say, "This man 5
is once again an Argive,3 occupying
his father's property, thanks to Pallas,
thanks to Apollo, and thanks to Zeus,
third god and all-fulfilling saviour."
Faced with these pleaders for my mother's cause, 10
Zeus chose to honour my father's death.
Now I'll go home. But first I make this oath
to your land and people for all time to come—
never will an Argive leader march in here
with spears arrayed against you. If he does, 15
in violation of this oath of mine,
from the grave we'll see his effort fails.
We'll bring him bad luck, trouble on the march,
send birds of evil omen over him.
He'll regret the pains his campaign brings him. 20
But all those who keep this oath, who honour
for all time Athena's city, allies
who fight on its behalf, such citizens
we'll treat with greater favour and good will.
And so farewell to you, Athena, 25
farewell to those who guard your city.
In struggles with your enemies, I hope
you catch them in a stranglehold, win out,
and gain the spear denoting victory.
[Apollo and Orestes leave. The Furies move to surround Athena] CHORUS
You younger gods, you've wrenched our ancient laws 30
out of my grasp, then stamped them underfoot.
This translation has been prepared by Ian a jury of Athenian citizens to decide his fate. The
Johnston of Malaspina University College, jury ties and Athena votes in favor of acquittal.
Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada. 2. Pallas Athena: The more formal name for
1. The numbers of the votes are equaclass="underline" To judge the goddess Athena.
between Orestes and the Furies, Athena organizes 3. Argive: Greek.