written by as many as thirty people: Michael Joseph Gross, “A Declaration of Cyber-War,” Vanity Fair, April 2011, http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/features/2011/04/stuxnet-201104.
an early variant of Stuxnet: Elinor Mills, “Shared Code Indicates Flame, Stuxnet Creators Worked Together,” CNET, June 11, 2012, http://news.cnet.com/8301-1009_3-57450292-83/shared-code-indicates-flame-stuxnet-creators-worked-together/.
Unnamed Obama administration officials confirmed: Sanger, “Obama Order Sped Up Wave of Cyberattacks Against Iran,” http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/01/world/middleeast/obama-ordered-wave-of-cyberattacks-against-iran.html?_r=1&ref=davidesanger&pagewanted=all.
“Do you really expect me to tell you?”: Meir Dagan in discussion with the authors, June 2012.
Olympic Games, was carried into the next administration: Sanger, “Obama Order Sped Up Wave of Cyberattacks Against Iran,” http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/01/world/middleeast/obama-ordered-wave-of-cyberattacks-against-iran.html?_r=1&ref=davidesanger&pagewanted=all.
After building the malware and testing it: Ibid.
Larry Constantine … challenges Sanger’s analysis: Larry Constantine, interview by Steven Cherry, “Stuxnet: Leaks or Lies?,” Techwise Conversations (podcast), IEEE Spectrum, September 4, 2012, http://spectrum.ieee.org/podcast/computing/embedded-systems/stuxnet-leaks-or-lies.
Michael V. Hayden, the former CIA director, told Sanger: Sanger, “Obama Order Sped Up Wave of Cyberattacks Against Iran,” http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/01/world/middleeast/obama-ordered-wave-of-cyberattacks-against-iran.html?_r=1&ref=davidesanger&pagewanted=all.
Sanger reported that American officials denied that Flame was part of the Olympic Games: Ibid.
security experts at Kaspersky Lab: “Resource 207: Kaspersky Lab Research Proves That Stuxnet and Flame Developers Are Connected,” http://www.kaspersky.com/about/news/virus/2012/Resource_207_Kaspersky_Lab_Research_Proves_that_Stuxnet_and_Flame_Developers_are_Connected; Mills, “Shared Code Indicates Flame, Stuxnet Creators Worked Together,” http://news.cnet.com/8301-1009_3-57450292-83/shared-code-indicates-flame-stuxnet-creators-worked-together/.
identified a particular module, known as Resource 207: “Resource 207: Kaspersky Lab Research Proves That Stuxnet and Flame Developers Are Connected,” http://www.kaspersky.com/about/news/virus/2012/Resource_207_Kaspersky_Lab_Research_Proves_that_Stuxnet_and_Flame_Developers_are_Connected.
a senior Kaspersky researcher explained: Mills, “Shared Code Indicates Flame, Stuxnet Creators Worked Together,” http://news.cnet.com/8301-1009_3-57450292-83/shared-code-indicates-flame-stuxnet-creators-worked-together/.
diplomatic fight in 2007 over the Estonian government’s decision: “Bronze Soldier Installed at Tallinn Military Cemetery,” RIA Novosti (Moscow), April 30, 2007, http://en.rian.ru/world/20070430/64692507.html.
mass of prominent Estonian websites: Ian Traynor, “Russia Accused of Unleashing Cyberwar to Disable Estonia,” Guardian (Manchester), May 16, 2007, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/may/17/topstories3.russia.
Estonia is often called the most wired country on Earth: Joshua Davis, “Hackers Take Down the Most Wired Country in Europe,” Wired, August 21, 2007, http://www.wired.com/politics/security/magazine/15-09/ff_estonia?currentPage=all.
Urmas Paet, accused the Kremlin directly: Doug Bernard, “New Alarm Bells, and Old Questions, About the Flame Virus and Cyber-War,” VOA (blog), May 30, 2012, http://blogs.voanews.com/digital-frontiers/tag/cyber-war/.
NATO and European Commission experts were unable to find evidence: “Estonia Has No Evidence of Kremlin Involvement in Cyber Attacks,” RIA Novosti (Moscow), June 9, 2007, http://en.rian.ru/world/20070906/76959190.html.
websites for the Georgian military and government were brought down: John Markoff, “Georgia Takes a Beating in the Cyberwar with Russia,” Bits (blog), New York Times, August 11, 2008, http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/08/11/georgia-takes-a-beating-in-the-cyberwar-with-russia/; John Markoff, “Before the Gunfire, Cyberattacks,” New York Times, August 12, 2008, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/13/technology/13cyber.html.
Russian hackers targeted the Internet providers in Kyrgyzstan: Gregg Keizer, “Russian ‘Cybermilitia’ Knocks Kyrgyzstan Offline,” Computerworld, January 28, 2009, http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9126947/Russian_cybermilitia_knocks_Kyrgyzstan_offline.
shutting down 80 percent of the country’s bandwidth for days: Christopher Rhoads, “Kyrgyzstan Knocked Offline,” Wall Street Journal, January 28, 2009, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB123310906904622741.html.
Some believe the attacks were intended: Ibid.; “Kyrgyzstan to Close US Airbase, Washington Says No Plans Made,” Hurriyet (Istanbul), January 17, 2009, http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/english/world/10796846.asp?scr=1.
In late 2009, Google detected unusual traffic within its network: David Drummond, “A New Approach to China,” Google Blog, January 12, 2010, http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2010/01/new-approach-to-china.html.
Google’s decision to alter its business position in China: David Drummond, “A New Approach to China, an Update,” Google Blog, March 22, 2010, http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2010/01/new-approach-to-china.html.
Pentagon gave the directive to establish United States Cyber Command (USCYBERCOM): “U.S. Cyber Command,” U.S. Strategic Command, updated December 2011, http://www.stratcom.mil/factsheets/cyber_command/.
Robert Gates declared cyberspace to be the “fifth domain” of military operations: Misha Glenny, “Who Controls the Internet?,” Financial Times Magazine (London), October 8, 2010, http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/3e52897c-d0ee-11df-a426-00144feabdc0.html#axzz1nYp7grM6; Susan P. Crawford, “When We Wage Cyberwar, the Whole Web Suffers,” Bloomberg, April 25, 2012, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-04-25/when-we-wage-cyberwar-the-whole-web-suffers.html.
new “cyber-industrial complex” somewhere between $80 billion and $150 billion annually: Ron Deibert and Rafal Rohozinski, “The New Cyber Military-Industrial Complex,” Globe and Mail (Toronto), March 28, 2011, http://www.theglobeandmail.com/commentary/the-new-cyber-military-industrial-complex/article573990.
A raid on the Egyptian state security building after the country’s: Ibid.; Eli Lake, “British Firm Offered Spy Software to Egypt,” Washington Times, April 25, 2011, http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2011/apr/25/british-firm-offered-spy-software-to-egypt/?page=all#pagebreak.
Chinese telecom was contacted: WikiLeaks cable, “Subject: STIFLED POTENTIAL: FIBER-OPTIC CABLE LANDS IN TANZANIA, Origin: Embassy Dar Es Salaam (Tanzania), Cable time: Fri. 4 Sep 2009 04:48 UTC,” http://www.cablegatesearch.net/cable.php?id=09DARESSALAAM585.
Sichuan Hongda announced: Fumbuka Ng’wanakilala, “China Co Signs $3 Bln Tanzania Coal, Iron Deal,” Reuters, September 22, 2011, http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/09/22/tanzania-china-mining-idUSL5E7KM1HU20110922.
loan agreement with China: “China, Tanzania Sign $1 Bln Gas Pipeline Deaclass="underline" Report,” Reuters, September 30, 2011, Africa edition, http://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFJOE78T08T20110930?pageNumber=1&virtualBrandChannel=0.