murmillo (pl. murmillones): one of the most familiar types of gladiator. The bronze, crested helmet was very distinctive, with a broad brim, a bulging face-plate and grillwork eyeholes. The crest was often fitted with groups of feathers, and may also have been fashioned in a fish shape. The murmillo wore a manica on the right arm and a greave on the left leg; like the legionary, he carried a heavy rectangular shield and was armed with a gladius. His only garments were the subligaria, an intricately folded linen undercloth, and the balteus, a wide, protective belt. In Republican times, the most common opponent for the murmillo was the secutor, although later on this became the retiarius.
olibanum: frankincense, an aromatic resin used in incense as well as perfume. Highly valued in ancient times, the best olibanum was reportedly grown in modern-day Oman, Yemen and Somalia. For obvious reasons, I have not used today’s name as it refers to the Franks who reintroduced it to Europe in the Middle Ages.
Optimates: an historical but informal faction in the Senate. Its members were dedicated to maintaining the honourable traditions and standards of the Roman Republic, while its main opponent, the Populares group, stood more for what the people wanted. At the time of The Silver Eagle, the most prominent member of the Optimates was Cato, who had been harbouring ill-feeling towards Caesar since 59 BC. Then a consul, Caesar had acted illegally by using physical force to further his cause. Damningly, he had also founded the triumvirate which took nearly all the power from the Senate and placed it in the hands of just three men. Then he had taken it upon himself to conquer Gaul, making himself incredibly wealthy. In the process, Caesar formed the largest and most battle-hardened army Rome had ever seen, one which was loyal only to him. Attempts by the Optimates to recall Caesar prematurely from Gaul were unsuccessful, but then a successful charge of corruption against Gabinius (see the final chapter, set in Alexandria), the acting governor of Syria, gave them heart. But without an army to back them up, the Optimates had little real power to force Caesar into a court. After making a deal with Pompey to restore the peace in 52 BC however, the faction saw a golden opportunity. Over the following months, they assiduously courted Pompey, the only man with the military might to help them. Ultimately, and against the initial wishes of the majority of the Senate, they were successful. Their actions, and Caesar’s refusal to stand down, precipitated the civil war.
optio (pl. optiones): the officer who ranked immediately below a centurion; the second-in-command of a century.
Orcus: the god of the underworld. Also known as Pluto or Hades, he was believed to be Jupiter’s brother, and was greatly feared.
papaverum: the drug morphine. Made from the flowers of the opium plant, its use has been documented from at least 1000 BC. Roman doctors used it to allow them to perform prolonged operations on patients. Its use as a painkiller is my extension of that.
Periplus (of the Erythraean Sea): a priceless historical document from approximately the first century AD. Clearly written by someone familiar with the area, the Periplus describes the navigation and trading opportunities along the entire coast of the Red Sea to eastern Africa and as far east as India. It details safe harbours, dangerous areas and the best places to buy valuable goods such as tortoiseshell, ivory and spices. I have changed its origins and contents slightly to fit in with the story.
phalera (pl. phalerae): a sculpted disc-like decoration for bravery which was worn on a chest harness, over a Roman soldier’s armour. Phalerae were commonly made of bronze, but could be made of more precious metals as well. Torques, arm rings and bracelets were also awarded.
pilum (pl. pila): the Roman javelin. It consisted of a wooden shaft approximately 1.2 m (4 ft) long, joined to a thin iron shank approximately 0.6 m (2 ft) long, and was topped by a small pyramidal point. The javelin was heavy and, when launched, all of its weight was concentrated behind the head, giving it tremendous penetrative force. It could strike through a shield to injure the man carrying it, or lodge in the shield, making it impossible for the man to continue using it. The range of the pilum was about 30 m (100 ft), although the effective range was probably about half this distance.
Priapus: the god of gardens and fields, a symbol of fertility. Often pictured with a huge erect penis.
primus pilus: the senior centurion of the whole legion, and possibly – probably – the senior centurion of the first cohort. A position of immense importance, it would have been held by a veteran soldier, typically in his forties or fifties. On retiring, the primus pilus was entitled to admission to the equestrian class.
principia: the headquarters of a legion, to be found on the Via Praetoria. This was the beating heart of the legion in a marching camp or fort; it was where all the administration was carried out and where the unit’s standards, in particular the aquila or eagle, were kept. Its massive entrance opened on to a colonnaded and paved courtyard which was bordered on each side by offices. Behind this was a huge forehall with a high roof, which contained statues, the shrine for the standards, a vault for the legion’s pay and possibly more offices. It is likely that parades took place here, and that senior officers addressed their men in the hall.
proconsuclass="underline" the governor of a Roman province, such as Spain or Cisalpine Gaul, of consular rank. Other provinces, e.g. Sicily and Sardinia, had slightly lower-ranking praetors to govern them. Such posts were held by those who had previously served as consuls or praetors in Rome.
pugio: a dagger. Some Roman soldiers carried this, an extra weapon. It was probably as useful in daily life (for eating and preparing food etc.) as when on campaign.
retiarius (pl. retiarii): the fisherman, or net and trident fighter, named after the rete, or net. Also an easily recognisable class of gladiator, the retiarius wore only a subligaria. His sole protection consisted of the galerus, a metal shoulder-guard, which was attached to the top edge of a manica on his left arm. His weapons were the weighted net, a trident and a dagger. With less equipment to weigh him down, the retiarius was far more mobile than many other gladiators and, lacking a helmet, was also instantly recognisable. This may have accounted for the low status of this class of fighter.
rudis: the wooden gladius which symbolised the freedom that could be granted to a gladiator who pleased a sponsor sufficiently, or who had earned enough victories in the arena to qualify for it. Not all gladiators were condemned to die in combat: prisoners of war and criminals usually were, but slaves who had committed a crime were granted the rudis if they survived for three years as a gladiator. After a further two years, they could be set free.
Samnite: a class of fighter based on the Samnite people who occupied the central Apennines, but were finally defeated by Rome in the third century BC. Some accounts describe them with triple-disc metal breastplates, but other depictions have the Samnites bare-chested. Plumed helmets and greaves were common, as was the typical wide gladiatorial belt. Carrying round or rectangular shields, they usually fought with spears.