For centuries, painting had been categorized into a strict hierarchy, with some subjects being regarded as more prestigious than others. History and religious painting were the most worthy; portraits came next, followed by genre, or scenes of everyday life, then landscapes and finally still life. But now, Protestant painters had to reconsider. Gradually they began producing small-scale modest subjects for the homes of the new, wealthy merchant classes. They often painted genre or still life to emphasize the renewed interest in ordinary things. Everyday objects or daily life represented the virtues of honesty, hard work and self-control. The philosophy was that although these things may seem insignificant or transitory, no aspect of God’s creation is too trivial to be noticed, valued or represented. Subjects drawn from the Bible, mythology and ancient history were also depicted in similarly realistic ways, to moralize or to establish parallels between the Dutch and great historical, cultural or political events of the past. These artists developed a style that highlighted clarity, definition and spatial relationships.
Portrait painting
Commissioned portraiture was a reliable way for an artist to earn a living. Many portraits were commissioned by wealthy individuals or committees. Successful Dutch merchants wanted portraits of themselves, their families, homes and possessions to show others how they were thriving. Members of local committees wanted to celebrate their importance in a material form that would decorate public rooms and impress future generations. During the first half of the century, portraits were formal and rigid. Attention was paid to fine details in clothing and surroundings to show status in society or profession. Later, group subjects became livelier and colors brighter. Rembrandt, who became known as the greatest Dutch artist, transformed his subjects with his technical mastery. Although working in Protestant Amsterdam, he was inspired by the work of Caravaggio, which prompted him to experiment with dramatically lit scenes full of action.
Still life and interiors
By 1640, the new genre of still life had been established in Holland as a subject in its own right and not just as part of a grander picture. With the middle classes now the primary patrons of art, still life paintings appealed for their realism, color and size. Contrasts of texture and lifelike details fascinated owners of the paintings and their guests. Paintings that also incorporated symbolic reminders, such as a skull, globe or rotting fruit—representing the transitory nature of life—were even more popular. These works were known as “vanitas” after the Biblical quotation from the Old Testament book of Ecclesiastes (1:2): “Vanitas vanitatum… et omnia vanitas,” meaning “Vanity of vanities… all is vanity.” They were reminders of the perils of vanity and the certainty of death.
Other intimate subjects such as small-scale interiors of buildings were successful with middle-class patrons. The ideology behind this was that art can be revealed in everyday experiences—all subjects are worthy if the artist is skilled enough. In contrast to most art at the time, these artists usually produced their works speculatively for the art market rather than for direct commissions. Most became experts in one kind of picture, working in a limited style, building up their reputations and establishing markets for their work.
timeline
1624
Laughing Cavalier,
Hals
(1580–1666)
1625
Vanitas,
Pieter Claesz
(1619–90)
1632–48
building of the Taj Mahal
1638
Carousing Peasants in an Interior,
Adriaen van Ostade
(1610–85)
1640
An Allegory of the Vanities of Human Life,
Steenwyck
(1612–59)
1642
The Night Watch,
Rembrandt
(1606–69)
1646
Construction of the Royal Palace, Amsterdam,
Jacob van Campen
(1596–1657)
c.1653
Still life with Drinking Horn,
Willem Kalf
(1629–93)
1653
Blenheim Castle,
Jacob van Ruisdael
(1628–82)
1657
View of Deventer Seen from the northwest,
Salomon van Ruisdael
(1602–70)
c.1663–65
Card Players in an Opulent Interior,
de Hooch
(1629–84)
c.1665
Girl with the Pearl Earring,
Vermeer
(1632–75)
1675–1776
Construction of St. Paul’s Cathedral,
Wren
(1632–1723)
1689
The Avenue, Middleharnis,
Hobbema
(1638–1709)
REMBRANDT
1606–1669 • DUTCH BAROQUE
Belshazzar’s Feast
c.1636–8 OIL ON CANVAS
167.6 × 209.2 CM (66 × 82¼ IN)
NATIONAL GALLERY, LONDON, UK
Rembrandt intensified the drama of a moment with a focus of brilliant light inspired by Caravaggio. From the Old Testament Book of Daniel, Belshazzar—the king of Babylon—has been blasphemously serving wine in the sacred vessels his father Nebuchadnezzar has looted from the Temple in Jerusalem. This is the moment when a divine hand appears and writes a warning on the wall that says: “God has numbered the days of your kingdom and brought it to an end; you have been weighed in the balances and found wanting; your kingdom is given to the Medes and Persians.”
Generally considered the foremost Dutch artist, and ranking with the greatest artists of all time, Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn transformed his subjects with technical mastery, whether in painting, drawing or etching. His dramatically lit scenes display action, drama or disarming simplicity. Although he experienced personal tragedies, his work never suffered and his many self-portraits offer a visual autobiography of his eventful life.
Born in Leiden, the son of a miller, Rembrandt had a good education and at the age of 14 he was enrolled at the University of Leiden but soon left to study art. His most significant early tutor was the Amsterdam-based Catholic Pieter Lastman (1583–1633), a Baroque artist who inspired him to concentrate on dramatic lighting and dynamic compositions. After six months he returned to Leiden and took his first pupils, but it was not an easy climate in which to work and with no Church commissions he had to try to obtain work from private patrons.
In 1631, Rembrandt moved to Amsterdam, the most prosperous port in northern Europe at that time. It offered him far more opportunities than Leiden and his first portrait was of a wealthy merchant, Nicolaes Ruts. Featuring the dramatic contrasts in lighting and the rendering of varied textures that are characteristic of his early work, it established him as the leading portrait painter in the city. In 1634, his marriage to Saskia van Uylenburgh, the cousin of a successful art dealer, enhanced his career even further, bringing him into contact with ever more wealthy patrons. Success continued and by 1639, he had earned enough to buy a large house. However, following the deaths of his wife and mother in the 1640s, he became introspective and began painting more religious works. His mythological and religious paintings are imbued with a sense of mystery through his warm and subtle use of chiaroscuro—the employment of light and shadow—and his dramatic masterpieces made him hugely popular. His teaching skills also became renowned and pupils flocked to join his studio.