Fig 7: Simplified version of the circles of humanity from the Stoic philosopher Hierocles.
The process of widening one’s circle of concern should not stop once it encompasses all human society. . . . Eventually, one’s okeiōsis should extend to include the entire cosmos, generating a concern for the preservation of all human beings and the natural world. . . . When we reach this widest possible circle of concern we shall become cosmopolitans—citizens of the cosmos.41
The wise person, Hierocles suggests, will try to pull in the outer circles in toward the center, or compress them, so that we will feel kinship with all of humanity and not just those who are closest to us. While he admits that a “difference in blood” will remove some affection for those who are farther away, the Stoic goal is to feel affection for humanity as a whole, and not just a sense of kinship for those with whom we’re closest.
In this way, as we progress down the path toward becoming wiser and more complete human beings, we won’t ignore the needs of those who are nearer and closest to us. Instead, we’ll recognize all of humanity and nature as part of the wider, living community of which we’re all a part. We’ll then see those greater circles, from which we’ve all emerged, as indispensable for our well-being and flourishing.
CHAPTER 10
How to Be Authentic and Contribute to Society
THE EPICUREAN GARDEN VS. THE STOIC COSMOPOLIS
Stoicism became the most widespread and successful philosophy of the Roman Empire because it promised a sense of inner tranquility in a stressful world that seemed, as in our own time, dangerously out of control. But Stoicism wasn’t the only philosophy that promised inner tranquility to its followers. The Epicureans, named after their founder Epicurus (341–270 BC), made the same claim. And like earlier Greek philosophers, both the Stoics and Epicureans were in search of eudaimonia or lasting happiness.
There are some areas in which Epicurean and Stoic thinking overlap. But it’s impossible to reconcile other ideas from the two schools because they’re just too far apart. In about the first thirty letters Seneca wrote to Lucilius, he includes a saying from Epicurus at the end of the letter. These sayings or epigrams are in perfect harmony with Stoic teachings and cover topics like the importance of simple living and how to achieve wealth through frugality. Even though Seneca considered the Epicureans to be “the opposing camp,” he was extremely open-minded when acknowledging the value of genuine wisdom, whatever its source. As he liked to point out to his friend Lucilius, good ideas are the “common property” of humanity, regardless of who expressed them.
Like the modern meaning of the word “stoic,” popular stereotypes and the development of language have been unfair to the Epicureans too. Today epicurean refers to someone who seeks out pleasure, like a gourmet through fine food. While it’s true that the Epicureans did make “pleasure” the foundation and goal of their philosophy, they were far from being hedonists. In fact, “pleasure” for them only meant living a life that was free from pain. And when it came to gourmet dining, nothing could be further from the truth. Epicurus himself mainly ate bread and water, and if he ever had a little cheese to go along with it, he considered it to be a feast.1
While the Stoics and Epicureans both sought mental tranquility in life, their views about the universe were entirely different. The Stoics saw the universe as resembling an intelligent organism, of which all living things, including us, are a part. The patterns we see in nature, they maintained, are a reflection of nature’s intelligence, in the same way that your hand is a manifestation of biological intelligence. By contrast, the Epicureans believed that the universe was made up of atoms—or tiny particles of matter—that collided randomly and stuck together by chance. Let’s stress those two words, just for a moment: randomly and chance. While atomism is an interesting idea, it doesn’t explain the kind of order and patterns we see in nature or biological life, which is very far from random.2
We discover another vast difference between the two schools in their ideas about how people should contribute to society. When Epicurus founded his philosophical school in Athens, he bought a piece of land outside the city, which was called “the Garden.” Epicurus’s students would hang out at the Garden, which resembled a hippy commune. That’s because the Epicureans lived a life in common, but as social dropouts. While the goal was to achieve peace of mind, in practice that meant disengaging from anything that might upset the soul, including the frustrations arising from marriage, having children, and getting involved in politics. As if to sum up his belief in social disengagement, Epicurus famously advised, “Live unnoticed.”3
For the Stoics, the Epicureans’ dropout culture raised serious ethical questions but also inspired opportunities for humor. Epictetus, for example, had a very sharp wit, which is still funny today. Joking to his students one day, he asked them, “Can you imagine a city of Epicureans? ‘I won’t marry’ says one. Another says, ‘Nor will I, because one shouldn’t marry!’ ‘No children either! Nor should we perform any civic duties!’”4
By contrast, the Stoics strongly emphasized the importance of civic engagement because they understood that we’re born to be social animals. For the Stoics, we belong to two different cities or two different commonwealths. The first commonwealth is the city or community where we were born (or where we now happen to live). The second commonwealth is the cosmopolis, the “world-city” or “community of the cosmos,” which encompasses the entire world and all of humanity. Because of this brotherhood of humanity of which we’re a part, the Stoics taught, it’s our duty to improve society—not by dropping out and joining a commune, but by actively serving our local communities and society as a whole. That’s why so many Stoics, like Seneca and Marcus Aurelius, were statesmen or public servants throughout the Roman Empire. Stoicism called upon them to improve the human condition to the best of their abilities.
For the Stoics, living an authentic life means contributing to society in some way that will benefit others. But since people are different, that service to others will take various forms. We’re not, after all, stamped out from a single cookie cutter. Because of that, the first step in living with authenticity is to understand yourself and your unique nature.
KNOW YOURSELF
Each person acquires his character for himself, but accident controls his duties.
—Seneca, Letters 47.15
Inscribed on the wall of the temple of Apollo at Delphi in ancient Greece was the famous saying, “Know yourself.” While this relates to every aspect of life, it very strongly applies to the question “How can I live authentically and contribute to society?” Because each person is different, we’re all best suited for many different tasks and occupations. And then there’s the added factor of chance or Fortune that’s thrown into the mix. As Seneca explained, while we’re all responsible for the quality of our inner characters, what each person does for a living is not entirely under our control.
Even though we don’t have full control over our professional careers or what we’re able to achieve in life, we should certainly strive for the best—or strive for the best work that’s suited for us. Because of this, Seneca writes, “we must first examine ourselves,” and then consider what we’d like to undertake. As he explains, we must understand ourselves carefully because people often think they can accomplish more than they’re able to.5 Of course, the opposite is often true. Sometimes people accomplish less than they could, simply because they doubt their abilities.