Aba ha i See Hongtaiji
Abakanowicz V.a-ba-'kan-o-.witsV Magdalena (b. June 20, 1930, Falenty, Pol.) Polish sculptor. A descendant of nobility, she graduated from Warsaw’s Academy of Fine Arts in 1955. She became the pioneer and leading exponent of sculpture made of woven fabrics, calling her three- dimensional weavings “Abakans” (from her surname). She produced series of fabric forms called Heads (1975), Backs (1976-80), Embryol¬ ogy (1980), and Catharsis (1986). She has also exhibited paintings, draw¬ ings, and sculptures in other media internationally and has been widely imitated in Europe and the U.S.
abalone X.a-bo-'lo-neV Any of several marine snail species (genus Hali- otis, family Haliotidae), found in warm seas worldwide. The outer sur¬ face of the single shell has a row of small holes, most of which fill in as the animal grows; some remain open as outlets for waste products. Abalo- nes range from 4 to 10 in. (10-25 cm) across and up to 3 in. (8 cm) deep. The largest is the 12 in. (30 cm) abalone ( H. rufescens). The shell’s lustrous, iridescent interior is used in ornaments, and the large muscular foot is eaten as a delicacy.
Commercial abalone fisheries exist in California, Mexico, Japan, and South Africa.
Abate, Niccolo dell' See Niccolo dell'Abbate
Abbado \a-'ba-do\, Claudio (b. June 26, 1933, Milan, Italy) Italian conductor. Abbado studied piano, composition, and conducting at the
Abalone (Haliotis)
JACQUES SIX
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2 I ‘Abbas I ► Abbey
Giuseppe Verdi Conservatory before beginning to conduct in Vienna. He was long associated with Milan’s La Scala (1968-86), as principal con¬ ductor and ultimately as artistic director, as well as with the Vienna Phil¬ harmonic and the London Symphony Orchestra. In 1989 he succeeded Herbert von Karajan as permanent conductor and artistic director of the Berlin Philharmonic. He is known for his commitment to adventurous programming, including much modem music.
'Abbas I known as 'Abbas the Great (b. Jan. 27, 1571—d. Jan. 19, 1629) Shah of Persia (1587-1629).
Succeeding his father, Muhammad Shah, he strengthened the Safavid dynasty by expelling Ottoman and Uzbek troops and creating a standing army. 'Abbas made Esfahan Persia’s capital, and under him it became one of the world’s most beautiful cities.
Persian artistic achievement reached a high point during his reign; illumi¬ nated manuscripts, ceramics, and painting all flourished, and the Por¬ tuguese, Dutch, and English com¬ peted for trade relations with Persia.
Tolerant in public life (he granted privileges to Christian groups) and concerned for his people’s welfare, his fear for his personal security led him to act ruthlessly against his immediate family.
'Abbas \ab-'bas\ I (b. 1813—d.
July 13, 1854, Banha, Egypt) Vice¬ roy of Egypt (1848-54) under the Ottoman Empire. His rule was one of consolidation, when many of the Western-style reforms begun by his grandfather, Muhammad c Au, were either discontinued or neglected. Though generally distrusting of foreigners, he allowed the British to con¬ struct a railroad between Alexandria and Cairo in 1851. The British, in turn, assisted him in disputes with his Ottoman overlords, whom he none¬ theless aided by sending troops to fight in the Crimean War (1853). A recluse, he was murdered by two servants at his palace in Banha.
Abbas, Ferhat (b. Aug. 24, 1899, Taher, Alg.—d. Dec. 24, 1985, Alg¬ iers) Algerian political leader who served as first president of the provi¬ sional government of the Algerian Republic (1958). Originally a Francophile, he became disillusioned with France, and during World War II (1939—45) he issued a condemnation of French rule, demanding a con¬ stitution that would grant equality to all Algerians. He joined the National Liberation Front (FLN), which helped achieve independence from France (1958-62). He was elected president of the Algerian Constituent Assem¬ bly in 1962 but resigned in 1963 following a dispute within the FLN. See also Young Algerians.
Abbas, Mahmoud also called Abu Mazen (b. 1935, Zefat, Pales¬ tine [now in Israel]) Palestinian leader. Abbas earned a law degree from the University of Damascus and a doctorate in history from Moscow State University. In the late 1950s he was one of the founders of Fatah, which spearheaded the Palestinian armed struggle and dominated the Palestine Liberation Organization. In the 1990s Abbas shaped Palestinian negotiat¬ ing strategy in peace talks that led in 1993 to the Oslo Accords, in which Israel and the Palestinians extended to each other mutual recognition and which called for Israel to cede some authority over the West Bank and Gaza Strip to the Palestinians. He briefly served as prime minister of the Palestinian Authority in 2003 and was elected its president in 2005.
'Abbasid \3-'ba-sod\ dynasty (750-1258) The second of the two great Sunnite dynasties of the Islamic Caliphate. The 'Abbasids took their name from an uncle of the Prophet Muhammad, al-'Abbas, whose descendants formed one of several groups agitating for change under the Umayyad dynasty. The Umayyad enforcement of a brand of Arab chauvinism, wherein non-Arab Muslims were relegated to a lower status, led to a revolution in which the 'Abbasids claimed the Caliphate and enforced a more universal community of believers. This was symbolized by their movement of the caliphal capital from Damascus to Baghdad, an area closer to the geographic centre of the empire and nearer the Persian hin¬ terland. Under their rule, Islamic culture flourished, new heights in phi¬ losophy and science were attained, and the period was widely seen as the
“golden age” of the Islamic world. During that time, however, the Caliph¬ ate’s authority slowly began to erode as regional power centres devel¬ oped throughout the empire. Although central authority was intermittently reasserted by strong-willed caliphs, by the 13th century 'Abbasid author¬ ity was largely spiritual. The last 'Abbasid caliph was executed by Mon¬ gol invaders, but a shadow Caliphate (of dubious authenticity) continued into the early 20th century. See also AbG Muslim.
Abbate \ab-'ba-ta\, Niccolo dell' or Niccolo dell'Abate (b. c.
1512, Modena, Duchy of Modena—d. 1571, Fontainebleau, Fr.) Italian painter. He was trained in Modena and developed his mature style under the influence of his contemporaries Correggio and Parmigianino in Bolo¬ gna (1544-52). There he painted portraits and decorated palaces with frescoes of landscapes and figure compositions in the Mannerist style. In 1552 he was invited by Henry II of France to work under Primaticcio at the Palace of Fontainebleau, where he executed immense murals (most now lost). He remained in France the rest of his life. His mythological landscapes were a principal source of the French Classical landscape tra¬ dition, and he was a precursor of Claude Lorrain and Nicolas Poussin.
Abbe Vab-e\, Cleveland (b. Dec. 3, 1838, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Oct. 28, 1916, Chevy Chase, Md.) U.S. meteorologist. He was trained as an astronomer and appointed director of the Cincinnati Observatory in 1868. His interest turned to meteorology, and he inaugurated a public weather service that served as a model for the national weather service, which was organized shortly thereafter as a branch of the (U.S. Army) Signal Service. In 1871 he was appointed chief meteorologist of the branch, which in 1891 was reorganized under civilian control as the U.S. Weather Bureau (later the National Weather Service), and he served in that capacity more than 45 years.
abbey Complex of buildings housing a monastery or convent under the direction of an abbot or abbess, serving the needs of a self-contained reli¬ gious community. The first abbey was Monte Cassino in Italy, founded in 529 by St. Benedict of Nursia. The cloister linked the most important ele¬ ments of an abbey together. The dormitory was often built over the din¬ ing hall on the eastern side of the cloister and linked to the central church. The western side of the cloister provided for public dealings, with the gatehouse controlling the only opening to the outer, public courtyard. On the southern side of the cloister were a central kitchen, brewery, and workshops. The novitiate and infirmary were housed in a building with its own chapel, bathhouse, dining hall, kitchen, and garden. In the 12th— 13th century, many abbeys were built throughout Europe, especially in France.