Foreign Encroachment & the Opium Wars
Western interest in the fabulously wealthy but militarily weak Middle Kingdom grew as more and more merchants made their way to China's shores hoping for a slice of the action. The British East India Company was keen to stake its claim and in 1793 Lord Macartney, George III's envoy, was given an audience with Emperor Qianlong in Chengde, but his refusal to kowtow was a sign of things to come. The Qing did not see the need for Western goods or influences and were not prepared to sign any kind of trading agreements with their perceived subordinates. The East India Company wasn't about to give up on such a lucrative opportunity and began to trade Indian-grown opium, rather than silver, in exchange for silk and tea. Addiction became rife and thus demand increased, which led to a futile attempt to ban the trade. In 1840 the emperor ordered the destruction of 20,000 chests of opium under Lin Zexu, which provoked the First Opium War (1840-2). Two years of bombardment later, the Chinese capitulated and were forced to sign the humiliating Treaty of Nanjing, which included a substantial indemnity payment along with the opening up of new ports and the ceding of Hong Kong to Britain. The Second Opium War (1856-60) brought more losses and underlined the fact that, technologically, China had some catching up to do. Further parcels of land were ceded to Britain, France, Germany, Japan, Russia and the US. Anti-Manchu feeling, long buried just beneath the surface, began to rise.
The Taiping Uprising (1850-64)
The insult of these treaties and their crippling indemnities spurred a number of popular rebellions, the most serious of which was the anti-Manchu Taiping Uprising. Founded by Hong Xiuquan, who believed he was the Son of God and brother of Jesus, this quasi-Christian cult acquired a million-strong army which captured much of the fertile Yangzi valley and established a capital at Nanjing. The uprising's focus on equality has led many to view it as a precursor to communism, while its draconian laws and desire to obliterate all that had come before is comparable to the destructive might of the Cultural Revolution. The uprising was eventually quashed with European support in 1864, but it left millions dead and other revolts broke out, notably the Nien (1853-68).
Empress Dowager Cixi (1835-1908)
It was during the Taiping Rebellion that the Empress Dowager Cixi rose to prominence. Originally a concubine, Cixi managed to maneuver her way to the top and manipulate the ineffective emperors, ruling from behind the scenes between 1861 and 1908. Known as "the Old Buddha,” she bore a son to Emperor Xianfeng, who became Emperor Tongzhi and, after outliving him, she installed her nephew, Guangxu, as emperor. After Guangxu's involvement in the 100 Days Reform Movement in 1898, Cixi kept him under lock and key in the Summer Palace while she ruled in his name. The Empress Dowager proved to be a dominant, yet inept leader and, fearing loss of her power, she rejected all attempts at much-needed reform until it was too late. Her lack of judgment catalyzed the Qing's downfall and her most crass misallocation of funds is still there to see today - the grand marble boat that sits in Kunming Lake at Beijing's Summer Palace was built using finances intended to bolster the navy!
The Boxer Rebellion (1899)
Fifty years of foreign domination and civil unrest made for a mood that only needed harnessing in a popular rebellion to challenge the Qing dynasty. This came in the form of the Boxer (or Righteous Fists) Rebellion, led by a mystical group who claimed invulnerability through the righteousness of their cause and as a result of their breath-control exercises. Their aim was to overthrow the Qing dynasty and destroy foreign influence in China, causes that struck a chord with the masses. Although Cixi managed to quell the rebellion in 1899, she then tried to use the Boxers to her advantage to rid the country of foreigners. In 1900 war was declared on all foreigners within China and the Boxers were set loose on the streets of Beijing. They killed the German and Japanese ministers, along with any other foreigners they could find, but the British and others were able to hold out until an allied support force arrived and routed the Boxers.
The Fall of Dynastic China
In the aftermath of the Boxer Rebellion, Cixi and the emperor fled to Xi'an leaving her ministers to negotiate yet another humiliating peace settlement. Although Cixi clung to the throne until her death in 1908, the dynastic age had passed and plans were afoot to build a new China, without emperors. Protests against a foreign-owned railway line provided the impetus for the final rebellion against dynastic China. The child emperor Puyi could offer no resistance and in 1911 the provisional Republic of China was founded in Nanjing under Dr. Sun Yatsen.
The Revolutionary Years
Dr. Sun Yatsen (1866-1925)
Dr. Sun Yatsen is regarded as the Father of Modern China. He is also known as Sun Zhongshan (the Chinese translation of his Japanese name, Nakayama, which means Middle Mountain). Sun Yatsen was born in Guangdong province and was then schooled around the globe, including a stint in Hawaii and medical training in Hong Kong. He soon developed an interest in politics and a firm belief in reform. After a failed uprising in Guangzhou in 1895 Sun fled to Europe, the US and Japan, acquiring funds and followers as he moved along. In 1905 he formed the Tong Meng Hui, or Revolutionary Alliance in Japan. His vision of modern China was based on the three principles of democracy, nationalism and livelihood and was modeled on the USSR, upon which the Nationalist Party (KMT) became increasingly dependent. After founding the republic, Sun was promptly deposed and fled the country. In 1915 he married Soong Qingling (whose sister, Meiling, married Chiang Kaishek in 1927). Returning to China in 1917, he finally gained control of the country in 1923, priming the way for Chiang Kaishek to ascend to the KMT's top spot. Sun died of cancer in 1925 and is still fondly remembered on both sides of the Taiwan Straits. Almost every town has a Zhongshan Road dedicated to him. The leagues of visitors to his mausoleum in Nanjing are further testimony to his significance in modern Chinese history.
The KMT
With the idealistic principles of Dr. Sun Yatsen at the helm, the future initially seemed bright for the republic, but continued Russian interference and China's failure to successfully unite against Japanese aggression meant that a rocky few decades lay ahead for the new China. After Yuan Shikai deposed the last emperor, a constitution was drawn up and elections were scheduled for 1913, but it soon became clear that Yuan wanted to establish his own power base. Rather than provoke civil war, Sun Yatsen stepped down from his position as head of the newly formed Kuomintang (KMT or Guomindang in Pinyin, National People's Party in English) and once again was forced into exile. Yuan scoffed at Sun Yatsen's withdrawal and in 1914 he made himself president for life. He died two years later and Dr. Sun Yatsen eventually returned to power, albeit heavily reliant on Soviet support. But foreign intervention in China continued to hinder stability and the humiliating terms of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles ignited protests in Tian'anmen Square which became known as the May Fourth Movement. Sun appointed his protégé, Chiang Kaishek (1888-1975, known in China as Jiang Jieshe), as his successor shortly before his death. Under Chiang, the KMT developed into a military dictatorship catering to the social elites, but did little to improve the lot of the rural majority or remove foreign control from the country.