21 A point missed by several secondary studies of Kennan’s CIA connections, especially Corke, U.S. Covert Operations and Cold War Strategy, and Simpson, Blowback. Miscamble, Kennan and the Making of American Foreign Policy, pp. 199–205, provides the most balanced assessment.
22 Rusk interview, p. 5; ASK interview, August 26, 1982, p. 15. See also, on Kennan’s failure to control OPC, Aldrich, The Hidden Hand, pp. 172–73.
23 GFK, Memoirs, I, 405–6; GFK to Marshall and Lovett, April 29, 1948, in FRUS: 1948, III, 108–9. See also Miscamble, Kennan and the Making of American Foreign Policy, pp. 128–29.
24 Reid to Hume Wrong, June 3, 1948, Ministry of External Affairs, Record Group 25, Volume 5800, File 283(S), Pt. 2.2, National Archives of Canada.
25 Franks interview, pp. 16–17; GFK interview by Pogue, pp. 23–25. See also Pogue, George C. Marshall, pp. 323–28.
26 GFK interview by Pogue, p. 25 (I have edited this passage slightly for clarity); GFK, Memoirs, I, 405–8. See also GFK to Louis Halle, April 20, 1966, GFK Papers, 57:1–4.
27 Hickerson interview, p. 11. The “Washington Exploratory Talks on Security,” which ran from July 6 through September 10, 1948, are extensively documented in FRUS: 1948, III, 148–250. See also Miscamble, Kennan and the Making of American Foreign Policy, pp. 129–33; and Pogue, George C. Marshall, pp. 328–35.
28 R. Borden Reams to Marshall, June 30, 1948, in FRUS: 1948, IV, 1078. For background on the Yugoslav situation, see Lees, Keeping Tito Afloat, pp. 1–79. GFK’s prediction of trouble elsewhere is in E. Herbert Norman’s report to the Canadian Department of External Affairs on Kennan’s Tokyo press briefing, March 6, 1948, Ministry of External Affairs, Record Group 25, Volume 5697, File 2AE(S), Pt. 2.1, National Archives of Canada.
29 PPS/35, “The Attitude of This Government Toward Events in Yugoslavia,” June 30, 1948, in FRUS: 1948, IV, 1079–81. See also Miscamble, Kennan and the Making of American Foreign Policy, pp. 189–93.
30 FRUS: 1948, IV, 1079n, tracks the bureaucratic history of PPS/35. For the “wedge” strategy, see Gaddis, Long Peace, pp. 147–94; Mayers, Cracking the Monolith; and Selverstone, Constructing the Monolith.
31 PPS/39, “United States Policy Toward China,” September 7, 1948, in FRUS: 1948, VIII, 146–55. See also Miscamble, Kennan and the Making of American Foreign Policy, pp. 223–26.
32 PPS/39/1, “U.S. Policy Toward China,” November 23, 1948, in FRUS: 1948, VIII, 208–11; GFK comment, question and answer period, lecture to the Pentagon Joint Orientation Conference, November 8, 1948, p. 23, GFK Papers, 299:17. See also GFK to Marshall and Lovett, November 24, 1948, in FRUS: 1948, VIII, 211–12.
33 GFK draft presidential statement, in PPS/45, “U.S. Policy Toward China in the Light of the Current Situation,” November 26, 1948, ibid., pp. 219–20; Marshall to Lovett, November 26, 1948, ibid. p. 220.
34 PPS39/1, November 23, 1948, ibid., pp. 210–11.
35 GFK to Lovett, June 23, 1948, in PPS/33, “Factors Affecting the Nature of the U.S. Defense Arrangements in the Light of Soviet Policies,” in PPS Papers II, 281; Forrestal to the NSC, July 10, 1948, in FRUS: 1948, I, 591. For the budget battles of this period, see Leffler, Preponderance of Power, pp. 220–65; and Hogan, Cross of Iron, pp. 159–208.
36 GFK to Marshall and Lovett, August 5, 1948, in FRUS: 1948, I, 599–600; GFK to Marshall, August 25, 1948, PPS Records, Box 33, “Chronological July–December 1948” folder.
37 PPS/38, “United States Objectives With Respect to Russia,” August 18, 1948, in PPS Papers, II, 372–411. See also Schilling, “Politics of National Defense,” pp. 185–87.
38 NSC 20/4, “U.S. Objectives With Respect to the USSR to Counter Soviet Threats to U.S. Security,” November 23, 1948, in FRUS: 1948, I, 662–69. See also Miscamble, Kennan and the Making of American Foreign Policy, pp. 197–99; and, for Forrestal’s frustration, Hoopes and Brinkley, Driven Patriot, pp. 405–19.
39 GFK to Frank Altschul, July 20, 1948, GFK Papers, 140:2; GFK to Lovett, August 2, 1948, PPS Records, Box 15, “Germany 1947–8” folder; GFK to Lovett, August 3, 1948, in FRUS: 1948, II, 994n; GFK to Smith, August 20, 1948, GFK Papers, 140:2.
40 PPS/37, “Policy Questions Concerning a Possible German Settlement,” August 12, 1948, in FRUS: 1948, II, 1287–97.
41 Clausewitz, On War, pp. 102, 109. For a more recent treatment of the phenomenon, see Gladwell, Blink. See also, for the analogy to painting, Churchill, Painting as a Pastime.
42 Hickerson to GFK, August 31, 1948, in FRUS: 1948, II, 1287n; GFK interview, September 8, 1983, p. 4; Rusk interview, p. 2; GFK to Marshall and Lovett, September 8, 1948, PPS Records, Box 33, “Chronological July–December 1948” folder.
43 GFK to Marshall, September 17, 1948, ibid. See also, for the consultants’ meeting, Miscamble, Kennan and the Making of American Foreign Policy, pp. 148–49.
44 GFK National War College lecture, “Contemporary Problems of Foreign Policy,” September 17, 1948, GFK Papers, 299:12. The Shakespeare reference is from Hamlet, Act I, Scene III, lines 62–63: “The friends thou hast, and their adoption tried, / Grapple them to thy soul with hoops of steel.”
45 PPS/37/1, “Position to Be Taken by the U.S. at a CFM Meeting,” November 15, 1948, in FRUS: 1948, II, 1320–38. See also GFK, Memoirs, I, 425–26.
46 Ibid., 409–10; PPS/43, “Considerations Affecting the Conclusion of a North Atlantic Security Pact,” November 24, 1948, in FRUS: 1948, III, 283–89.
47 GFK lecture to Pentagon Joint Orientation Conference, “Estimate of the International Situation,” November 8, 1948, pp. 11–12, GFK Papers, 299:17.
48 I have made this argument at greater length in Strategies of Containment, pp. 82–83, 86.
49 ASK to Frieda Por, no date, JEK Papers; GFK Diary, September 25–26, 1948. The transcripts of GFK’s lectures and speeches are in GFK Papers, 299:8–19. For his lecture schedule, see the list dated March 17, 1949, in PPS Records, Box 33, “Chronological—1949” folder. GFK’s NSC staff resignation is in a letter to Sidney Souers, December 3, 1948, ibid., “Chronological July–December 1948” folder.
50 GFK National War College lecture, “Where Are We Today?” December 21, 1948, GFK Papers, 299:19.
51 Fosdick interview, p. 2; Rusk interview, p. 2; GFK interview, September 7, 1983, p. 2.
52 GFK, “Foreword,” in PPS Papers I, vii.
FIFTEEN ● REPRIEVE: 1949
1 GFK lecture to Pentagon Joint Orientation Conference, “Estimate of the International Situation,” November 8, 1948, pp. 11–12, GFK Papers, 299:17. For Acheson’s appointment, see Acheson, Present at the Creation, pp. 249–50; and Beisner, Dean Acheson, pp. 82–83.