38. Gladys Gordon-Bournique, ‘A. O. Lovejoy and the history of ideas’, Journal of the History of Ideas, volume 48, 1987, page 209.
39. This was similar to an idea of Hegel’s which he called ‘philosophemes’. See: Donald A. Kelley, ‘What is happening to the history of ideas?’, Journal of the History of Ideas, volume 51, 1990, page 4.
40. Philip P. Wiener (editor), Dictionary of the History of Ideas, four volumes, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1973.
41. Kelley, Op. cit., pages 3–26.
42. James Thrower, The Alternative Tradition, The Hague: Mouton, 1980.
PROLOGUE: THE DISCOVERY OF TIME
1. Jacquetta Hawkes (editor), The World of the Past, London: Thames & Hudson, 1963, page 29.
2. Ibid., page 33.
3. James Sackett, ‘Human antiquity and the Old Stone Age: the 19th-century background to palaeoanthropology’, Evolutionary Anthropology, volume 9, issue 1, 2000, pages 37–49.
4. Hawkes, Op. cit., pages 30–34 and 147–148.
5. Ibid., page 27.
6. Glyn Daniel, One Hundred and Fifty Years of Archaeology (second edition), London: Duckworth, 1975, pages 25–26.
7. Bruce G. Trigger, A History of Archaeological Thought, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, page 53.
8. Ian Tattersall, The Fossil Trail, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1995/1996, page 8; and Hawkes, Op. cit., pages 25–26.
9. Hawkes, Op. cit., pages 28–29.
10. Sackett, Op. cit., page 46.
11. Peter J. Bowler, Evolution: The History of an Idea (revised edition), Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 1989, pages 32–33.
12. Trigger, Op. cit., pages 92–93.
13. James A. Secord, Victorian Sensation: The Extraordinary Publication, Reception, and Secret Authorship of ‘Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation’, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2000, page 146.
14. Ibid., page 105.
15. Peter Burke, ‘Images as evidence in seventeenth-century Europe,’ Journal of the History of Ideas, volume 64, 2003, pages 273–296.
16. Burke, Op. cit., pages 283–284.
17. Trigger, Op. cit., page 74.
18. Ibid., page 76.
19. Sackett, Op. cit., page 48.
20. Ibid.
CHAPTER 1: IDEAS BEFORE LANGUAGE
1. George Schaller, The Last Panda, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993, page 8.
2. Robert J. Wenke, Patterns in Prehistory, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990, pages 119–120.
3. But see Stephen Oppenheimer, Out of Eden: The Peopling of the World, London: Constable, 2003, page 10.
4. Journal of Human Evolution, volume 43, 2002, page 831, reported in New Scientist, 4 January 2003, page 16. Of course, action by wooden implements, if they existed, wouldn’t show up as remains.
5. Paul Mellars and Chris Stringer, The Human Revolution, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1989, page 70 and chapter six, ‘Multi-regional evolution: the fossil alternative Eden’, by Milford H. Wolpoff. Chimpanzees are now thought not to be as closely related to man as once believed – see New Scientist, 28 September 2002, page 20. The most recent, but still disputed evidence puts the chimpanzee–human divergence back to 4–10 million years ago – see Bernard Wood, ‘Who are we?’, New Scientist, 26 October 2002, pages 44–47.
6. New Scientist, 13 July 2002, page 6; and 13 July 2002, page 6. As Bernard Wood points out, the Djurab desert is 150 kilometres (95 miles) west of the East African Rift valley, which means this area may no longer be regarded as the exclusive home of early humans: ‘Who are we?’, New Scientist, 26 October 2002, page 47. Sahelanthropus was later criticised as being a form of early ape, not an ancestor of man – see the Times Higher Educational Supplement, 25 October 2002, page 19. The find of a leg bone was reported in 2000, said to be the remains of our ‘Millenial Ancestor’, dated to six million years ago, which had upright posture. New Scientist, 15 December 2000, page 5. Stephen Oppenheimer says the earliest ‘clear evidence’ for bipedalism is seen in the skeleton of A. anamensis at four million years ago. Oppenheimer, Op. cit., page 5.
7. Oppenheimer, Op. cit., page 11.
8. Steven Mithen, The Prehistory of the Mind, London: Thames & Hudson, 1996, page 238.
9. Richard G. Klein with Blake Edward, The Dawn of Human Culture, New York: John Wiley, 2002, page 56.
10. Another theory is that the upright posture allowed for greater cooling of the body in the African heat, via the top of the head, which was now more exposed. Oppenheimer, Op. cit., page 5.
11. One recent theory argues that rapid climate change, which occurs every 100,000 years or so, is responsible for the development of intelligence: Times Higher Educational Supplement, 4 October 2002, page 29.
12. Klein with Edward, Op. cit., page 65.
13. This may have something to do with the fact that when mammals began to flourish, after the dinosaurs died out 65 million years ago (after the earth was hit by an asteroid), the early species were nocturnal creatures and therefore required larger brains to process information from several senses – touch, smell and hearing as well as sight. Chimpanzees, for example, seem better at drawing inferences from acoustic clues than from visual ones. Mithen, Op. cit., pages 88 and 114.
14. Oppenheimer, Op. cit., page 11.
15. Mithen, Op. cit., pages 108–109.
16. Wenke, Op. cit., page 120.
17. Mithen, Op. cit., page 22. Homo habilis is known as Australopithecus habilis among some palaeontologists. See Bernard Wood, ‘Who are we?’, New Scientist, 26 October 2002, page 47.
18. Mithen, Op. cit., page 126.
19. Oppenheimer, Op. cit., pages 14–15. John Noble Wilford, ‘Experts place ancient toolmaker on a fast track to northern China,’ New York Times, 5 October 2004, citing a report in the then current Nature.
20. The latest H. erectus discoveries, at Dmanasi, in Georgia, consist of individuals with much smaller brains, with a 600 cc capacity. This suggests they moved out of Africa not because they were more intelligent than other hominids, or had better tools, but because, owing to climate, African conditions extended into Europe. Alternatively, these examples were actually children. The Times (London) 5 July 2002, page 14.
21. Wenke, Op. cit., pages 145–147.
22. Richard Rudgley, The Lost Civilisations of the Stone Age, New York: The Free Press, 1999, page 143.
23. Goudsblom, Fire and Civilisation, Op. cit., pages 16 and 34.