64. Leveque, Op. cit., page 363.
65. Ibid., page 364.
66. Ibid.
67. Grant, Op. cit., page 252.
68. Burn, Op. cit., page 204.
69. Grant, Op. cit., page 39.
70. Burn, Op. cit., page 124.
71. Ibid.
72. Grant, Op. cit., page 39.
73. Ibid., page 40. See also Cook, Op. cit., page 145.
74. Burn, Op. cit., page 205.
75. Grant, Op. cit., page 110.
76. Ibid., pages 129–130. Cook, Op. cit., page 145.
77. Boorstin, Op. cit., page 79.
78. Grant, Op. cit., page 158.
79. Ibid., page 159. Cook, Op. cit., page 118.
80. John Boardman, Greek Art, London and New York: Thames & Hudson, 1996, page 145.
81. Cook, Op. cit., page 157. Grant, Op. cit., pages 95–96.
82. Grant, Op. cit., page 81.
83. What many people consider to be the climax of classical Greek sculpture was discovered in 1972 in the sea off Riace in Calabria, southern Italy. These are the so-called Riace bronzes, two male figures about six feet tall. Both are bearded, were originally helmeted and may have carried shields, though these have been lost, possibly looted. The figures have luxuriant hair, with lips and nipples (and possibly eyelashes) made of copper. Technically, and realistically, the statues are second to none and although, in truth, we do not know who fashioned them, the two main candidates are, first, Pythagoras, a sculptor described by Pliny as the ‘first to represent such anatomical details as sinews and veins and hair’ and whose native town was Rhegium (the modern Reggio Calabria), near where the bronzes were brought up; and second, Polyclitus. This attribution is based on the fact that he worked a lot in bronze, in Argos, and because the statues have various Argive features. His work, too, is known only through copies, one the ‘Youth Holding a Spear’ (Doryphorus), in Naples, and the other, ‘Youth Binding a Fillet Round His Head’ (Diadumenus) of which there are various copies. But Polyclitus also wrote a Canon, embodying his view of what the ideal proportions for a human being should be. This shows that Polyclitus had a mathematical view of beauty – it was a philosophical matter of proportions, the human body ‘a supreme demonstration of mathematical principle’. Pliny said that many people were influenced by the Canon. Polyclitus beat Phidias in a competition for the statue of an Amazon for the temple of Artemis at Ephesus. But none of this proves that the Riace bronzes are by him and the possibility is real that the climax of classical Greek sculpture was produced by an unknown hand. Grant, Op. cit., pages 81ff.
84. Ibid., page 59.
85. John Boardman, Athenian Red Figure Vases: The Classical Period, London and New York: Thames & Hudson, 1989, page 8. Richard Neer, Style and Politics in Athenian Vase-Painting: The Craft of Democracy, Circa 530–470 BCE, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
86. Ibid., pages 263–264.
87. Hall, Op. cit., pages 32–33. But many sculptures were painted: see Cook, Op. cit., 151 for a discussion.
88. Hall, Op. cit., page 30.
89. Grant, Op. cit., page 279.
90. Ibid., page 280.
91. Ibid., page 224.
92. Ibid., page 281.
93. Walter Burkhart, The Orientalizing Revolution, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992 (1984 in German), passim.
94. Martin Bernal, Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilisation, London: Free Association Books, 1987/Vintage paperback 1991, page 51.
95. M. L. West, The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. West says that Egyptian literary influences on Greece are ‘vanishingly small’ but Peter Jones, Op. cit., page 225, says that though many details in Bernal’s account are absurdly exaggerated, much of his general argument is sound.
96. Isaiah Berlin, Liberty (edited by Henry Hardy), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, pages 302–303.
97. Ibid., page 294 and ref.
98. Ibid., page 304.
99. Ibid., page 308.
100. See Peter Jones (editor/director), The World of Rome, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1997, page 289, for Zeno’s paradox.
101. Berlin, Op. cit., page 310.
102. Leveque, Op. cit., pages 328ff.
103. Berlin, Op. cit., page 312.
104. Ibid., page 314.
105. Grant, Op. cit., page 263.
106. Translated by Erwin Schrödinger in his Nature and the Greeks and Science and Humanism, Op. cit., page 19.
CHAPTER 7: THE IDEAS OF ISRAEL, THE IDEA OF JESUS
1. Johnson, History of the Jews, Op. cit., page 78.
2. Ibid., page 82.
3. Robin Lane Fox, The Unauthorised Version, New York: Knopf, 1991, page 71–72. See Finkelstein and Silberman, Op. cit., pages 120–121, for the Israelites’ uneasy relationship with YHWH.
4. Lane Fox, Op. cit., page 70. Gordon and Rendsburg, Op. cit., page 323.
5. Lane Fox, Op. cit., page 56.
6. Johnson, Op. cit., page 83.
7. Lane Fox, Op. cit., page 275.
8. Johnson, Op. cit., pages 84–85.
9. Ibid., page 85.
10. Lane Fox, Op. cit., page 85.
11. Ibid., page 107. Richard Friedman argues that it was Ezra who gave the final shape to the Law of Moses; see Finkelstein and Silberman, Op. cit., page 310.
12. Philip R. Davies, Scribes and Schools, London: SPCK, 1998, page 24.
13. Ibid., page 7.
14. Lane Fox, Op. cit., page 109.
15. Ibid., page 10.
16. Ibid., page 116.
17. Philip Davies argues against this. He maintains that the final form of Hebrew scriptures tells us nothing about their evolution. Davies, Op. cit., pages 89–90. In fact, these three divisions of Old Testament writings describe four phases of Israelite history: the ancient history of the world and the election of the ancestors of Israel (in Genesis); the creation of the nation, from the descendants of Jacob in Egypt and the Lord’s gift of a constitution (law) and land; a period of decline, from the leadership of Moses, through Joshua and Saul to David and Solomon, and then through the less than ideal monarchies of Israel and Judah, culminating in exile in Babylon (Exodus to Kings and Chronicles); the restoration of Judah, the rebuilding of the Temple, and the reconstitution of Judah/Israel as a religious entity ‘devoted to the convenant with Yahweh and to worship in his temple’. At this point canonised history ends, though of course Jewish history does not end. For Christians, Judaism comes to an end theologically, with the birth of the Messiah. Ibid., page 55.