102. Jones et al., Op. cit., page 290. Pasiteles and his workshop, for example, specialised in pastiches – statues which, for instance, combined the head from one Greek original with the posture of another.
103. Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, London, 1788, chapter 3. I have used the Dell version, published in New York in 1963.
CHAPTER 10: PAGANS AND CHRISTIANS, MEDITERRANEAN AND GERMANIC TRADITIONS
1. Ferrill, Op. cit., page 12.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid., page 15.
4. Ibid., page 17.
5. Turner, The Great Cultural Traditions, Op. cit., page 270.
6. Ibid., pages 270ff. Bauer, Op. cit., page 57, discusses a ‘Gospel of the Hebrews’.
7. Turner, Op. cit., page 273.
8. Ibid., pages 275–276.
9. Ibid., page 278. This embarrassing fact may also explain why the gospel of Mark transfers the responsibility for Jesus’ execution from Pontius Pilate to the Jewish leaders. Ibid. Some modern scholars believe that Brandon exaggerates the meaning of the term ‘zealot’ – that they were more bandits than full-scale revolutionaries.
10. Ibid., page 279. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 36, considers the four brothers of Jesus.
11. Freeman, Op. cit., page 108.
12. Rowland, Op. cit., page 195.
13. Turner, Op. cit., page 280.
14. Rowland, Op. cit., page 216. See Moynahan, Op. cit., pages 23ff, for Paul’s conversion and the importance of Antioch in early Christianity.
15. Turner, Op. cit., page 317.
16. Ibid., page 318.
17. Rowland, Op. cit., pages 220ff.
18. Turner, Op. cit., page 374.
19. Ibid., page 375. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 26 for the details.
20. Freeman, Op. cit., page 121.
21. Ibid., page 119.
22. Prudence Jones and Nigel Pennick, A History of Pagan Europe, London: Routledge, 1995, page 53.
23. Armstrong, A History of God, Op. cit., page 109.
24. Ibid., page 110.
25. Jones and Pennick, Op. cit., page 55.
26. Ibid., page 57.
27. Ibid., page 58.
28. Lane Fox, Op. cit., pages 168ff; Moynahan, Op. cit., page 29, for the links between Stoicism and Christianity.
29. Lane Fox, Op. cit., page 94.
30. Ibid., page 30, but see Chapter 25 of this book.
31. Ibid., page 299.
32. Another idea, not exactly anathema to pagans, but seen by them as irrational, was that of angels. These divine presences had apparently been conceived in late Judaism (among the Essene sects at Qumran, who wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls, for example), and Paul had made much of them on his travels. They appeared at times of crisis, to help believers, and so the early years of the church were especially favourable circumstances.
33. See Robin Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians, London and New York: Viking, 1986, chapter 9, pages 419ff, for the violence of this time.
34. Jones and Pennick, Op. cit., page 62. Bauer, Op. cit., pages 24f.
35. Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians, Op. cit., page 567.
36. Turner, Op. cit., page 377. See Moynahan, Op. cit., pages 70ff, for the different tortures used on martyrs and the different ways they devised for being crucified.
37. It should not be overlooked that his immediate predecessor, Galerius, had issued an edict of toleration in 311 on his deathbed. Many consider this, rather than the conversion of Constantine, the turning-point in religious history. Jones and Pennick, Op. cit., pages 64–65. In 311 the same man reported how the people of several cities had approached him to plead for a renewed persecution of the Christians. Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians, Op. cit., pages 612–613.
38. Jones and Pennick, Op. cit., page 65. Bauer, Op. cit., page 45, for the role of Julius Africanus and that of the early bishops. And see Moynahan, Op. cit., page 104, for Julius’ role in specifying holy sites, such as that for Noah’s Ark.
39. Turner, Op. cit., page 1054.
40. Ibid., page 1057. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 76, for the problems faced by Diocletian and Valerian.
41. Turner, Op. cit., page 1059.
42. Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians, Op. cit., pages 613–614. Moynahan, Op. cit., pages 91–93, for a vivid description of the battle of the Milvian bridge.
43. Jones and Pennick, Op. cit., pages 68–69.
44. Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians, Op. cit., pages 150–151.
45. Jones and Pennick, Op. cit., page 75.
46. Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians, Op. cit., page 670.
47. Armstrong, A History of God, Op. cit., page 147.
48. The number seven was chosen because that was the number of sub-leaders appointed by the Apostles in Jerusalem. Turner, Op. cit., pages 1070–1071.
49. Ibid., page 1075.
50. Ibid., page 1076.
51. However, he was forced to surrender church vessels and gold. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 154.
52. Turner, Op. cit., page 1080.
53. Ibid., and Moynahan, Op. cit., pages 129ff.
54. Turner, Op. cit., page 1080.
55. Monks were not allowed to wash and had to cover their heads at meals, because Pachomius thought that eating was ‘an unbecoming act’. Ibid. See Moynahan, Op. cit., page 133, for Pachomius and his method for the prevention of fraud.
56. Norman Cantor, The Civilisation of the Middle Ages, New York: HarperCollins, 1963/1993, page 149.
57. Ibid., page 149.
58. Turner, Op. cit., page 1095, and Moynahan, Op. cit., page 44 for early Christian writing.
59. Turner, Op. cit., page 1096.
60. Ibid., page 1097.
61. Ibid., page 1104. See Moynahan, Op. cit., pages 115–116, for the Montanist beliefs about diet.
62. The ‘Muratorian Fragment’, so called after its discoverer Muratori (1672–1750), was written at about this time and its layout suggests that Roman congregations had by then long regarded the canon as divinely inspired.
63. Turner, Op. cit., page 1112.
64. Moynahan, Op. cit., pages 56–57.
65. Armstrong, A History of God, Op. cit., page 113.