77. Ibid., page 187.
78. Ibid., page 67.
79. Secord, Op. cit., page 526.
80. Mayr, Op. cit., page 510.
81. Even T. H. Huxley, ‘Darwin’s bulldog’, who did so much to advance the cause of evolution overall, never made much of natural selection.
82. Bowler, Evolution: The History of an Idea, Op. cit., page 24.
83. See: Peter Watson, A Terrible Beauty: The People and Ideas That Shaped the Modern Mind, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2000/The Modern Mind: An Intellectual History of the Twentieth Century, New York: HarperCollins, 2001, page 371, for a summary of the evolutionary synthesis. See also: Ernst Mayr and William B. Provine (editors), The Evolutionary Synthesis, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1990/1998.
84. Secord, Op. cit., pages 224 and 230.
85. Mayr, Op. cit., page 654.
86. Bowler, Evolution: The History of an Idea, Op. cit., page 271.
87. Bowler, The Non-Darwinian Revolution, Op. cit., page 132.
88. Ibid., page 135.
89. Ibid.
90. Lewis Morgan, Ancient Society, London: Macmillan, 1877.
91. This whole debate, however, was coloured by racist thinking. For example, a new science of ‘craniometry’ emerged in which the brain sizes of different races were compared. The leading figures here were S. G. Morton in America and Paul Broca in France, who both thought they had demonstrated that the ‘lower’ races had smaller brains and that this accounted for their lower intelligence and their more primitive position on the ladder of cultural evolution.
92. Bowler, The Non-Darwinian Revolution, Op. cit., page 144.
93. Ibid., page 145.
94. Ibid.
95. See Brooke, Op. cit., page 147 for the background to Dubois’ trip to the Far East.
96. Bowler, The Non-Darwinian Revolution, Op. cit., page 174.
97. Ibid., page 175.
CHAPTER 32: NEW IDEAS ABOUT HUMAN ORDER: THE ORIGINS OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND STATISTICS
1. D. Gerould, The Guillotine: Its Legend and Lore, New York: Blast Books, 1992, page 25.
2. Ibid., page 33.
3. See Barzun, From Dawn to Decadence, Op. cit., pages 519ff, for other reactions to the French Revolution.
4. Ibid., page 428.
5. Ken Alder, The Measure of All Things: The Seven-Year Odyssey That Transformed the World, London: Little Brown/Abacus, 2002/2004, page 96.
6. Ibid., pages 314–325.
7. Hawthorn, Enlightenment and Despair, Op. cit., page 67.
8. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 423.
9. Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 218.
10. Roger Smith, Op. cit., pages 423–424.
11. Saint-Simon saw society as composed of nobles, industriels, and ‘bastard classes’. In other words, he had a healthy dislike of the bourgeoisie. Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 68.
12. John Marks, Science and the Making of the Modern World, London: Heinemann, 1983, page 196.
13. Ibid., page 197.
14. Ibid., pages 198–199.
15. Ibid.
16. Charlotte Roberts and Margaret Cox, Health and Disease in Britain: From Prehistory to the Present Day, Stroud, England: Sutton, 2003, pages 338–340. Roy Porter cautions that though we now equate tuberculosis with consumption, in fact the latter often included asthma, catarrh etc. Roy and Dorothy Porter, In Sickness and in Health: The British Experience, 1650–1850, London: Fourth Estate, 1988, page 146.
17. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 427. Boorstin, The Seekers, Op. cit., page 222.
18. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 201.
19. Mary Pickering, Auguste Comte: An Intellectual Biography, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1993, pages 192ff, for the rupture with Saint-Simon.
20. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 429.
21. Ibid., page 430.
22. Pickering, Op. cit., pages 612–613 and 615.
23. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 431.
24. Comte had a high opinion of his accomplishments and towards the end of his life signed himself: ‘The founder of Universal Religion, Great Priest of Humanity.’
25. See ‘The vogue for Spencer’, in Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought, Boston: Beacon Books, 1944/1992, pages 31ff.
26. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 438.
27. Ibid., page 446.
28. L. A. Coser, Masters in Sociological Thought: Ideas in Historical and Sociological Context, New York: Harcourt Brace, 1971, page 281. Harold Perkin, The Rise of Professional Society: England Since 1880, London and New York: Routledge, 1989/1990, page 49.
29. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 555.
30. Hawthorn, Op. cit., pages 147ff, for the disputes ‘smouldering’ at the Verein.
31. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 556.
32. Ibid., pages 556–557.
33. Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 157.
34. Anthony Giddens, introduction to Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, London and New York: Routledge, 1942 (reprint 1986), page ix.
35. Reinhard Bendix, Max Weber: An Intellectual Portrait, London: Heinemann, 1960, page 70. For Weber’s political views, see Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 154f.
36. Roger Smith, Op. cit., pages 561–562.
37. Giddens, Op. cit., pages ixff.
38. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 563.
39. Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 186.
40. David Frisby, Georg Simmel, London: Tavistock Publications, 1984, page 51.
41. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 546.
42. Ibid. See Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 122, for the links to pragmatism (see Chapter 34 below).
43. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 547.
44. Steven Lukes, Emile Durkheim: His Life and Work, London: Allen Lane The Penguin Press, 1973, pages 206ff.
45. Ibid., page 207, for the difference between egoism, anomie and altruism.
46. Marks, Op. cit., page 208.
47. Roberts and Cox, Op. cit., page 537. ‘The germ theory of disease’, Alexander Hellemans and Bryan Bunch, The Timetables of Science, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991, page 356.
48. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 535.
49. Bernal, Science and History, Op. cit., volume 4, page 1140.
50. Alder, Op. cit., page 322.
51. Alan Desrosières, The Politics of Large Numbers: A History of Statistical Reasoning, translated by Camille Naish, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1998, page 75.