Фригия 119
Хабор 154
Хадрамаут 215
Хадитта (Хедатта) 79
Хазир 38, 42
Халван 49, 50, 212
Халкидон 15
Хара-Хото 230
Хардес 44, 78 {243}
Харран 25, 69, 137, 169, 229
Хатра 8, 122
Хедайаб, гора 40
Хедайаб, область см. Адиабена
Хенайта 81
Хенес 78
Хербат Гелал 79, 80
Херпа 42
Хетара 44, 78
Хефтун 43, 81
Хымьяр 30, 224
Хирта (Хира) 30, 80, 172, 202, 207, 209, 215, 221, 224, 229
Хорасан 45, 171, 172
Хорив (Хореб) 51
Хузистан 40, 63, 110, 206, 207
Хусай 214
Цейлон 16, 230
Центральная Азия 30, 56, 108
Шалмат 78
Шамира 44, 78
Шахргерд 195
Шебан 80
Шена 81
Шигар (Санджар) 71, 209
Шираз 40
Шурзак 37, 81
Шуштер (Турстар) 196
Эдесса 7, 8, 16, 22, 24, 25, 28, 31, 34, 35, 418, 52, 56-63, 65, 71, 82, 83, 91, 110, 118, 132, 137, 141, 143, 145, 148, 169, 170, 186-190, 196, 201, 212, 228, 229
Экра 78
Элам 45, 73
Элефантина 34
Эфес 14, 58
Эфиопия 6, 12, 16, 28, 30, 229
Южная Аравия 6, 7, 21, 29, 224, 229 {244}
SUMMARY
N. V. Pigulevskaya's monograph Syrian Culture in the Middle Ages is a new stage in her study of Syrian sources, It marks a transition from the use of these sources as a background material for the study of the history of Byzantium, Iran, Southern Arabia and India, to a comprehensive research into the history of the Syrian people proper and to the re-creation of their economic, political, ideological, cultural and scholarly life. N. V. Pigulevskaya set herself the task of providing an all-round characterisation of the spiritual culture of the Syrians and of showing its singular place in the history of the medieval world. She treats the history of Syrian culture not as a mechanical combination of parallel developments in literature, historiography, religion and science, but as an integral totality of knowledge and concepts, ideology and ethics. She discusses the cultural level of the people as a whole, including the spread of literacy and the scope of knowledge of an educated Syrian of this period. While concentrating on spiritual culture, which in medieval society was determined to a considerable extent by religious ideology, she observes these phenomena from a materialist point of view.
According to the original design, N. V. Pigulevskaya's book was to have consisted of three large chapters; the author's death, however, left this project unfulfilled. In Chapter 3, "The Spread of Syrian Culture", she planned to deal with the cultural activities of the Syrians in India, Central Asia, the Far East and Europe, which she linked to the major role the Syrians had played in the world trade and economy. She intended to assemble and present all data pertaining to the Syrians' trade and settlements along such important routes as the Great Silk Route and the Incense Road.
Chapter I, "Medieval Education of Syrians. The Syrians and Learning", consists of two large sections. The first deals with the content of Syrian culture at the educational level, presenting an ample exposition, based on Syrian sources (some of them unique), of the history of medieval Syrian schools, the organisation of education, the scope of the curriculum, the teaching methods and the activities of prominent teachers and educators. N. V. Pigulevskaya starts with a description of the initial stage in the teaching process, viz., the teaching of reading and writing. Elementary schools of the Syrians resembled {245} the parish and monastery schools of the Latin West, the Greek East and all the Slav countries. Both the curriculum and the teaching methods used in elementary education were not only preserved over many centuries but had international features: in Osrhoene as throughout the Christian world, education began with the study of the Psalms. Further studies concentrated on the Scriptures as a whole, but especially on the New Testament and its interpretation. School education, therefore, was basically clerical. Yet the Syrians were interested in secular sciences as well. This interest was promoted by their wide-ranging commercial ties, which made literacy indispensable, and the needs of production, which encouraged the development of complex technical knowledge, such as alchemistry, geography and agronomy. A certain amount of professional learning was also required of physicians and master craftsmen.
Elementary school was the first step towards special education, ecclesiastical as well as secular. In a special section devoted to the characterisation of the sources on the history of higher education of the Syrians, N. V. Pigulevskaya examines first of all the Nisibis Academy Statutes. This unique record of Syrian culture contains information on such aspects of the early medieval higher school as its structure and the living conditions, customs and habits of students and teachers. Reflected in it was a striving for a reform of the higher education and a discontent of the students. The author then proceeds to describe Barhadbeshabba ?Arabaya's treatise The Reason of the Foundation of Schools and An Ecclesiastical History, which supplement the Statutes, and cites new facts as well. The Reason of the Foundation of Schools contains two parts, the theoretical one presenting a philosophical analysis of the cognition of the world, and the other dealing directly with school life.
N. V. Pigulevskaya pays special attention to the Academy of Nisibis, the medieval Syrian university. She offers a detailed account of the history of that school and its activities, basing her research on the two sources mentioned above. Her book also contains the first translation into Russian of the Statutes of the Academy of Nisibis.
In the second section of Chapter 1, the author gives a circumstantial analysis of the Syrians' achievements in philology, philosophy, medicine, geography, cosmogony, alchemistry and agronomy. This is supplemented by portraits of a number of prominent Syrian men of learning: Bar Daisan, a scholar, philosopher and poet; Afrahat the Persian Sage, an exegetist and philologist; Ephraim the Syrian, a poet of great talent who {246} exerted a profound influence on the subsequent development of Christian literature; Sergius of Resh'aina, a physician reknowned for his extensive theoretical knowledge and practical activities. The author focuses especially on the Syrians' accomplishments in the field of translation, as a result of which links were established between the learning of ancient classical Greece and medieval Arabic, Indian and Iranian learning, and then, through the medium of the Arabs, with learning in Western Europe.
Chapter 2, "The Empire. Iran and the Syrians", analyses in detail the spread of Syrian culture in the Middle East and its. interaction with the Greek and Iranian cultures, an interaction resulting from the economic and political position of northern Mesopotamia and the active role the Syrians played in political life and international trade. N. V. Pigulevskaya's prime concern is ideology, namely, the political causes underlying the spread of two different trends of Christianity - the Nestorian and the Monophysite. Christianity became the official religion of northern Mesopotamia at a rather early period, hence the area's important role in the dissemination of the new faith. The author dwells upon the origins of Syrian Christianity, which is usually linked with the activities of the Apostles Addai and Thomas. The tradition tracing it to Addai was older and more deeply rooted, and as such it was mentioned in such Syrian literary compositions as The Doctrine of 'Addai and The Acts of St Mari, Apostle of the Orient. The latter apocryphal text mentions the evangelisation of a number of Iranian provinces as part of the Apostles' activities. N. V. Pigulevskaya also analyses the early Syrian martyria: The Acts of Sharbil and Barsamya, which describe the actual situation in the area in the 3rd-4th centuries and are of interest to the historian of Syrian literature and culture, of the time. Discussed in this context is also a late 4th-century Acts of the three martyrs from Edessa - Gurya, Shemona and Habib.
As Christianity took firm root in Osrhoene, a region of ancient cultural traditions, this encouraged the spread of the new religion to Iran. Another contributing factor to this process was the political opposition of the Byzantine Empire and Iran. For some time, Christianity did not make much of an impact in Iran, and persecution of the Christians only began in the wake of the militant religious policy started by the Sasanids. N. V. Pigulevskaya's detailed analysis of the history and causes of the persecution of Iranian Christians is corroborated by the hagiographic cycle devoted to the martyrs of the "great persecution". The author concludes that the anti-Christian action was induced by the ideological affinity of Iranian Christians {247} with Byzantium, on the one hand, and by the opportunities to seize the property of the executed Christian Syrians, who belonged to the urban communities of traders and craftsmen. Yet, despite persecution, Christian communities in Iran, dominated as they were by the Syrians, continued to exist and develop: a hierarchic structure came into being, Christian writings in the Syrian language gained currency, and even the dogmas underwent certain revision. In the 5th century, the Christian Church in Iran was remodeled after the Byzantine; it recognised the Nicene Creed and elected, with the approval ans of the Shahanshah, a Catholicos as its head.
Thanks to the mediation of Syrian Christians, who were well endowed to carry out political missions, diplomatic relations were gradually established between Iran and Byzantium. N. V. Pigulevskaya closely follows the ideological conflicts within the Syrian-Persian Church in the 5th century, which reflected the current social and political struggle, and offers vivid character sketches of the participants in those dogmatic disputes. Thus, she examines the activities of Bar Sauma, who favoured Nestorianism and was therefore sharply anti-Monophysite. There is an account of the Nestorian Patriarch mar Abha I, a prominent representative of Syrian culture, as well as descriptions of such men as Ishoyahbh I, Sabhrisho, Ishoyahbh III, and Henanisho I.
The monograph discusses the relationship between the Christian Syrians and the Arabs who conquered Sasanian Iran in the early 7th century. A special section of the chapter is devoted to such Monophysite leaders as Simeon, the bishop of Beth-Arsham, and mar Ahudhemmeh, and especially to Jacob Burde'ana, after whom the Syrian Monophysites came to be known as Jacobites. The Jacobites produced many a noted historian - Joshua the Stylite and John of Ephesus; eminent writers, including Jacob of Serugh; many philosophers, astronomers and physicians. The rivalry between the Nestorians and the Monophysites induced the Syrian Christians to engage in unending proselytising in the Middle East, and it is to both groups - the Nestorians and the Monophysites - that Syrian culture owes its high standards. {248}
1 Эта работа была написана еще в 30-х годах, но опубликована значительно позже. Н. В. Пигулевская. Каталог сирийских рукописей Ленинграда. - ПС, 1960, № 6, (69).
* В фигурные скобки {} здесь помещены номера страниц (окончания) издания-оригинала - Ю. Ш.
2 Н. В. Пигулевская. Сирийские источники по истории народов СССР. ТИВАН. ХLI, 1941.
3 Н. В. Пигулевская. Месопотамия на рубеже V и VI вв. Сирийская хроника Иешу Стилита как исторический источник. - ТИВАН. XXXI, 1940.
4 Н. В. Пигулевская. Византия и Иран на рубеже VI и VII вв. ТИВАН. ХLVI, 1946.
5 Н. В. Пигулевская. Византия на путях в Индию. Из истории торговли Византии с Востоком в IV-VI веках. М.-Л., 1951.
6 История Мар Ябалахи III и Раббан Саумы. Исследование, перевод с сирийского и примечания Н. В. Пигулевской. М., 1958.
7 Н. В. Пигулевская. Города Ирана в раннем средневековье. М.-Л., 1956.
8 Н. В. Пигулевская. Арабы у границ Византии и Ирана в IV- VI вв. М.-Л., 1964.
9 Тюркологический сборник. М. 1966, с. 228-232.
1 М. Cohen. La grande invention de lecriture et son evolution. T. 1-3. Р., 1958. Т. 1, с. 97, 113, 118, 143.
2 Там же, с. 158-159.
3 J. Pirenne. Aux origines de la graphie syriaque. - "Syria". T. 40, fasc. 1-2, 1963, с. 115-119, 131, 136.
4 Ch. С. Torrey. А Syriac Parchment from Edessa in the year 243 A. D.ZS. Bd 10, 1935, с. 33-45; A. R. Bellinger, С. В. Welles. A Third century contract of sale from Edessa in Osrhoene.- YCS. Vol. 5, 1935, с. 93-154.
5 W. Wright. Catalogue of the Syriac manuscripts in the British Museum. P. 1-3. Oxford, 1870-1872, Add. 12150 (далее: Wright. Catalogue.); H. Пигулевская. Каталог сирийских рукописей Ленинграда.- ПС, вып. 6 (69). Л., 1960, с. 95 (далее: Пигулевская. Каталог).