Halder, Franz (1884-1972)
Career officer. In 1938 succeeded Beck as army chief of general staff, remaining in this post until 1942. In 1938 told members of the opposition that he would support a putsch in order to avert a war in Europe. Toyed with the idea of arresting Hitler if war broke out with Britain and France, a plan that failed because of the Munich agreement. Thereafter made a strong distinction between his personal dislike of Hitler and the loyalty demanded by his position. Contributed substantially to the early German successes on the eastern front. Dismissed on September 24, 1942, for opposing Hitler’s decision to withdraw troops from the front so as to concentrate on Stalingrad. Thrown into a concentration camp after July 20, 1944. Toward the end of the war, numbered among the prominent prisoners taken from one camp to another but freed shortly before he was to be executed. From 1946 to 1961 headed the United States Army’s court-martial research staff. In his book Hitler als Feldherr (translated as Hitler as War Lord), published in 1949, he criticized the Führer’s strategy and his leadership qualities.
Hammerstein-Equord, Baron Kurt von (1878-1943)
Career officer of the old school. Became chief of army command in 1930. In late January 1933 went to Hindenburg to express the command’s doubts about Hitler’s fitness to become chancellor. Resigned in the fall of 1933. For a short time in 1939 commanded an army division in the West. Was soon relieved of his command because of his negative attitude toward National Socialism. Died of cancer in 1943.
Hassell, Ulrich von (1881-1944)
Lawyer and diplomat who held a number of important posts abroad. Served as German ambassador in Rome from 1932 until recalled in 1938. Later active in private business. From the outset strongly criticized Hitler’s foreign policy as leading inevitably to war. After hostilities broke out, used his international contacts to arrange contacts with representatives of Great Britain and the United States. Hoped that a successful coup would soon lead to the conclusion of a peace treaty with the Western Allies. Worked with Goerdeler, Beck, and Popitz on plans for Germany after the coup. Named as prospective foreign minister in all surviving cabinet lists drawn up by the resistance. Arrested on July 28, 1944. Condemned to death by the People’s Court on September 8 and executed in Plötzensee prison.
Heinz, Friedrich Wilhelm (1899-1968)
Officer in World War I who later joined the Erhardt Freikorps. Until late 1923 a leader in the SA. Expelled from the NSDAP. From 1925 to 1928 a member of the Stahlhelm’s national leadership. Finally a lieutenant colonel in the OKW Military Intelligence division. Was supposed to lead a task force attacking the Chancellery in September 1938. Wanted to prompt a scuffle during this action and shoot Hitler. In 1941 became commander of the Fourth Regiment of the Brandenburg Division. On July 20, 1944, was to lead a task force for the resistance. Though present on Bendlerstrasse, he managed to survive the war by hiding in Berlin. After the end of hostilities, became a municipal politician in the Soviet zone, then a controversial employee in the rearmament office in the West German government.
Helldorf, Count Wolf-Heinrich von (1896-1944)
Fought in World War I and was a member of the Freikorps. Became a National Socialist in 1925 and a member of the Prussian state assembly. In 1931 became the SA leader for Berlin-Brandenburg. Appointed Berlin prefect of police in 1935. After Kristallnacht upbraided his police officers for obeying orders to do nothing and stated that if he had been in Berlin he would have issued orders to shoot. Participated in the resistance. Arrested alter July 20, 1944, and executed in Plötzensee prison on August 15.
Hofacker, Cäsar von (1896-1944)
Lawyer. Began to work for the Vereinigte Stahlwerke (United Steel) company in Berlin in 1927, rising to considerable prominence there. Joined the Stahlhelm in 1931. As a lieutenant colonel in the reserve, was drafted into the Wehrmacht in August 1939. Became head of the iron and steel section of the military administrative staff in Paris, and later personal aide to the military commander in France. Acted as messenger between Stülpnagel and Stauffenberg. Attempted to win Rommel over to the conspiracy and later revealed his name under torture, sealing Rommel’s fate. Arrested on July 26, 1944, and condemned to death by the People’s Court on August 30. Executed in Plötzensee prison on December 20, 1944.
Jessen, Jens Peter (1895-1944)
Professor of political science at Göttingen, Kiel, and Marburg and lived in Berlin starting in 1936. Supported the Nazis before 1933 because he believed that they were the only force that could prevent an imminent Bolshevik takeover in Europe. He said, however, that once the Nazis assumed power he was likely to go into opposition. Was outraged at the abuses and corruption of the new regime. During the war was a captain in the reserves in the office of the quartermaster general of the army. Helped the July 20 conspirators travel. With Popitz and Planck, developed plans for a new constitution that conflicted with those of Goerdeler. Arrested in August 1944. Condemned to death by the People’s Court on November 30 for “failure to report treasonous activities” and executed the same day in Plötzensee prison.
Kaiser, Jakob (1888-1961)
Bookbinder. Served from 1924 to 1933 on the executive of the Christian Trade Unions. Became a Center Party deputy in the Reichstag in 1933. With Wilhelm Leuschner attempted, also in 1933, to bring the various trade unions organized along ideological and philosophical lines together into a single union so as to forestall Nazi Gleichschaltung. Later, with Josef Wirmer, became one of Carl Goerdeler’s most influential advisers. His calm, open-minded, but determined temperament contributed substantially to relieving the tensions between various resistance groups. Went underground after July 20, 1944, and successfully eluded capture. In 1945 helped found the Christian Democratic Union in the Soviet occupation zone and Berlin. Was a West German minister from 1949 to 1957 and acting chairman of the CDU until 1958.
Keitel, Wilhelm (1882-1946)
Career officer. Blomberg’s successor as chief of the newly created OKW or high command of the armed forces, serving from 1938 to 1945. Appointed field marshal in 1940. Although originally opposed to an attack on the Soviet Union, he became Hitler’s devoted and closest military assistant. Called Hitler the “greatest general of all times,” earning himself the nickname Lakaitel (a play on his surname and Lakai, the German word for lackey). Sentenced to death at the Nuremberg trials and executed on October 16, 1946.
Kleist-Schmenzin, Ewald von (1890-1945)
Estate owner, lawyer, and conservative politician with strong Christian and monarchical beliefs. Actively combated National Socialism in the dying days of the Weimar Republic. Twice arrested for short periods in May and June 1933. Traveled to London for political discussions in 1938 at the behest of Beck’s group. Met Goerdeler in 1942 and 1943 and agreed to support a coup. Was privy to Stauffenberg’s plans and approved the assassination attempt. Was the prospective political representative in the Stettin military district. Arrested after July 20 and condemned to death by the People’s Court in March 1945. Executed on April 9 in Plötzensee prison.