353. Anthony D’Agostino, Gorbachev’s Revolution (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 112.
354. Brown, 127.
355. Ligachev; 125; Brown, 127.
356. Howard Selsam, Socialism and Ethics, (New York: International Publishers, 1943), 92-99. Lenin held that the class values of the working class—solidarity, unity, cooperation, comradeship, etc., would become universal as socialist society became universal. The needs of the working class “create for it an ethics that is at one and the same time a class ethics and a human ethics embracing actually or potentially all men.”
357. Jerry Hough, Democratization and Revolution in the USSR, 1985-1991 (Washington DC: Brookings Institution, 1997), 192-196.
358. Ligachev, 132, 189.
359. Ellman and Kontorovich, “The Collapse of the Soviet Union and the Memoir Literature,” Europe-Asia Studies, 49, no. 2 (March 1997): 265.
360. Robert Kaiser, Why Gorbachev Happened: His Triumphs and His Failure (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991), 156.
361. Anthony Jones and William Moskoff, Koops: The Rebirth of Entrepreneurship in the Soviet Union (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991), xv.
362. Jones and Moskoff, 78.
363. Victor Perlo, “The Economic and Political Crisis in the USSR,” Political Affairs, 70, (August 1991): 15.
364. Gregory Grossman, “The Second Economy: Boon or Bane for the Reform of the First Economy?” in Economic Reforms in the Socialist World (London: Macmillan, 1989), 83.
365. John B. Dunlop, The Rise of Russia and the Fall of the Soviet Empire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 5.
366. Brown, 166.
367. Anders Aslund, Gorbachev’s Struggle for Economic Reform (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1989), 32.
368. Ligachev, 318.
369. Hough, 154.
370. David M. Kotz and Fred Weir, Revolution from Above (New York: Routledge, 1997), 97.
371. Nina Andreyeva, “I Cannot Forgo My Principles,” in Alexander Dallin and Gail W. Lapidus, eds., The Soviet System: From Crisis to Collapse (Boulder, San Francisco and Oxford: Westview Press, 1995), 288-296.
372. Leading proponents of this view are: Mikhail Gorbachev, Memoirs, 252-254; Anatoly Chernyaev, My Six Years with Gorbachev (University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University, 2000), 153-160; Roy Medvedev and Giulietto Chiesa, Time of Change (New York: Pantheon, 1989), 189-206; Robert Kaiser, Why Gorbachev Happened (New York et al.: Simon and Schuster, 1991), 204-213; Yitzhak M. Brudny, “The Heralds of Opposition to Perestroika,” Ed A. Hewett and Victor H. Winston, eds., Milestones in Glasnost and Perestroika (Washington, D. C.: Brookings Institute, 1991), 153-189; Anthony D’Agostino, Gorbachev’s Revolution (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 191-197; David M. Kotz and Fred Weir, Revolution from Above (London and New York: Routledge, 1997), 67-68; Joseph Gibbs, Gorbachev’s Glasnost (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1999), 66-73.
373. Medvedev and Chiesa, 190.
374. Brudny, 167.
375. Kaiser, 204.
376. Andreyeva, passim.
377. Kaiser, 204.
378. Andreyeva, 290-293.
379. Kaiser, 204.
380. Andreyeva, 294-295.
381. Gibbs, 67.
382. Stephen F. Cohen, “Introduction,” to Ligachev, x, xxxii.
383. Gorbachev, 252.
384. Medvedev and Chiesa, 192.
385. Andreyeva, 296.
386. Gibbs, 67.
387. Ligachev, 301.
388. Valery Boldin, Ten Years That Shook the World: The Gorbachev Era as Witnessed By His Chief of Staff (New York: Basic Books, 1994), 168.
389. Gibbs,68.
390. Medvedev and Chiesa, 193.
391. Ligachev, 302.
392. Ligachev, 304-308.
393. Ligachev, 308.
394. Medvedev and Chiesa, 193.
395. Medvedev and Chiesa, 194-196.
396. Kaiser, 213.
397. Medvedev and Chiesa, 196.
398. Chernyaev, 154.
399. Medvedev and Chiesa, 196.
400. Kaiser, 213.
401. Gibbs, 71.
402. Medvedev and Chiesa, 196.
403. Chernyaev, 156.
404. Ronald Grigor Suny, The Soviet Experiment (New York, Oxford University Press, 1998), 461.
405. Ligachev, 152.
406. Hough, 106.
407. William Taubman, Khrushchev: the Man and His Era (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2003), 587, 782. Alexander Yakovlev was a link between the Khrushchev and Gorbachev eras on the proposal to divide the Party, according to this biography, which seems likely to be the standard scholarly work in English for some time. Taubman interviewed Yakovlev, author of the party-splitting proposal to Gorbachev. Having worked in Moscow under Khrushchev in 1962, Yakovlev described to Taubman the CC Secretariat’s resistance to Khrushchev’s division of the Party into industrial and rural segments. Taubman states that, at the October 1964 Plenum that endorsed Khrushchev’s forced retirement, certain leaders characterized the party’s division as “the worst confusion our Soviet state has known since it was created.”
408. Brown, 106.
409. Mikhail Gorbachev, Memoirs (New York: Doubleday, 1995), 282.
410. William E. Odom, The Collapse of the Soviet Military (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 209.
411. Brown, 101; Gorbachev, Memoirs, 605.
412. P. Fedosyev, ed., What Is Democratic Socialism? (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1980), 18.
413. Norman Markowitz, “On Holz’s Defense of Leninism,” Nature, Society and Thought 6, no. 3, 354.
414. Brown, 42, 328.
415. Odom, 115.
416. Ligachev, 15.
417. Andrew Murray, Flashpoint: World War III (London: Pluto Press, 1996), 42.
418. D’Agostino, 117-118.
419. D’Agostino, 119.
420. D’Agostino, 119.
421. Odom, 151
422. Odom, 137.
423. Mikhail Gorbachev, October and Perestroika: the Revolution Continues (Moscow: Novosti Press Agency, 1987), 66-67.
424. Odom,102.
425. Sarah E. Mendelson, Changing Course: Ideas, Politics, and the Soviet Withdrawal from Afghanistan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), 111. A strongly favorable assessment of Najibullah can be found in Philip Bonosky, Afghanistan: Washington’s Secret War(New York: International Publishers, 2001).
426. Mendelson, 122.
427. Mendelson, 117.
428. Vladimir Shubin, ANC: A View from Moscow (Bellville, South Africa: Mayibuye Books, University of Western Cape, 1999), 340-341.
429. V. I. Lenin, Questions of National Policy and Proletarian Internationalism (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1970), 60.
430. David Lane, The Rise and the Fall of State Socialism (Cambridge: Polity Press: 1996), 124.
431. Ellman and Kontorovich, 134.
432. Ellman and Kontorovich, 145.
433. Ellman and Kontorovich, 188.
434. Ligachev, 339.
435. Ellman and Kontorovich, 2.
436. Ellman and Kontorovich, 150.
437. Ellman and Kontorovich, 189.
438. S. Frederick Starr, “A Usable Past,” in Alexander Dallin and Gail Lapidus, eds., The Soviet System from Crisis to Collapse (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995), 14-15.
439. Anne White, Democratization in Russia under Gorbachev 1985-91: The Birth of a Voluntary Sector (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999), 6-12.
440. Ellman and Kontorovich, 150.
441. Stephen F. Cohen, Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution (New York: Vintage, 1975), 36.
442. Yuri Andropov, “In Celebration of the Sixtieth Anniversary of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics,” A Reader on Social Sciences (Moscow: Progress, 1985), 381; John and Margrit Pittman, Peaceful Coexistence: Its Theory and Practice in the Soviet Union (New York: International Publishers, 1964), 85.
443. Yitzhak M. Brudny, Reinventing Russia: Russian Nationalism and the Soviet State (Cambridge: Harvard University, 1998), 17.
444. Odom, 407.
445. Ligachev, 143.
446. Terry Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923-39 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001), 1.
447. Suny, 464.
448. D’Agostino, 178