artists see intelligentsia
Assembly of Plenipotentiaries (1918), 97
associations (factory), 407–8
Aswan Dam (Egypt), 352, 389
atheism, 136 , 203–4
Augustus, Roman emperor, 226
Aurora (battleship), 65
Austria: Hitler annexes, 231; East German refugees in, 483
Austria-Hungary: relations with Imperial Russia, 1, 3; Imperial Russian rivalry with, 24–5; and outbreak of World War I, 25–6; and October Revolution, 75; 1917/18 peace agreement with Russia, 77, 80; unrest in, 81
autonomous republics: introduced, 114
Azerbaijan: and Provisional Government collapse, 60; as independent state, 83; Mensheviks in, 83; conflict with Armenia, 113; Soviet republic formed, 114, 121, 207; status, 129; and Nagorny Karabakh, 133, 457, 482; religion in, 136, 370; joins Commonwealth of Independent States, 506
Azerbaijani Popular Front, 482
Babel, Isaak, 139, 248
Babi Yar (Ukraine), 286
Baghdad railway, 1
Bagration, Operation (1944), 267
Baibakov, Nikolai, 439
Baikal, Lake, 468
Bakatin, Vadim, 486, 493, 495, 512
Baker, James, 496
Bakh, Aleksei, 247
Baklanov, Oleg, 496, 498–9, 501–2
Baku: oilfields, 4, 121, 126; Bolshevik success in, 7; Russians in, 23; Muslim Azeris massacred in, 83; disorder over Nagorny Karabakh, 482
Balkans: French influence in, 24; wars in, 24–5
Balkars, 367
Baltic states: Russians in, 23; lost in 1918 peace settlement, 77–8; incorporated in USSR (1940), 258, 456; Germans occupy, 261, 283; post-World War II demands, 298; post-World War II deportations, 300; Russianization of, 366; human chain formed, 481; decline to join Commonwealth of Independent States, 507; see also Estonia; Latvia; Lithuania
banks and finance: credit squeeze in World War I, 28; nationalized (1917), 79; central, 452
Barbarossa, Operation (1941), 260, 263
Bashkir Republic, 114, 129
Bashkirs: and Russian rule, 84, 114, 424
Bashkortostan, 521
Basic Law (1905), 1, 15–16
Basmachi, 208
Bavarian Soviet Republic, 120
BBC Russian Service, 557
BBC World Service, 415
Bedny, Demyan, 205
begging, 517
Belarus (formerly Belorussia): agrees to join Commonwealth of Independent States, 506; see also Belorussia
Belgium: Germans occupy, 258
Belgrade: Gorbachëv visits, 463
Belorussia: lost in 1918 peace agreement, 77–8, 84; Soviet republic formed, 114; status, 129–30; Germans occupy, 261, 283; loyalties in World War II, 284; relations with Russians, 368; affected by Chernobyl disaster, 445; nationalist protests, 457; see also Belarus
Berdyaev, Nikolai, 137, 536
Berezovski, Boris, 532, 548–9, 550, 556–7, 561
Beria, Lavrenti: in Georgia, 201; interrogation methods, 229; promoted, 232, 242; at 18th Party Congress, 233; supports Stalin, 241, 252; on threat of World War II, 260; and conduct of World War II, 262; and murder of Polish officers, 268; and Stamenov, 268; and deportation of nationalities, 276; and nuclear weapons research, 301, 304, 318; post-World War II position, 303; Stalin turns against, 325; advocates easier treatment of non-Russians, 326, 343; and Stalin’s death, 327; position and reform policies after Stalin’s death, 331–3; arrested and shot, 333–4, 345, 357; in Great Terror, 340
Berlin: expected rising in, 101; 1923 insurrection, 159; Red Army occupies, 272; blockade and airlift (1948–9), 310; 1953 strike, 336; Wall, 373–4; see also Germany
Berlin, Sir Isaiah, 316
Beslan, siege at, 549
Bessarabia: annexed by USSR, 258
Big Three (USSR, USA, Britain), 294
Birobidzhan, 317
birth rate, 422
black market: in food, 109, 119; as common practice, 243–4
Blair, Tony, 556
Blok, Alexander, 95
Blokhin, Yuri, 497
Bloody Sunday (9 January 1905), 13
Blyumkin, Yakov, 103
Bogomolov, Oleg, 450
Bogrov, Dmitri, 17
Boldin, Valeri, 498–9
Bolshevik Party see Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Bonch-Bruevich, V.D., 93
Bondarëv, Yuri, 497
Bonner, Yelena (Sakharov’s widow), 521
Book of Delicious and Healthy Food, The, 320
Bosnia 24, 537
Boundary and Friendship Treaty (Germany–USSR, 1939), 257
bourgeoisie: class war against, 92; emigration by, 136; in administration, 145; and private trade, 145; eliminated, 239; see also middle class
Bovin, Alexander, 450
BP, 550
Brandt, Willy, 389
Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of (1918), 75–6, 78–80, 84–6, 93, 102–3, 107, 173, 268, 326
Brezhnev, Leonid: career, 236, 383, 568; Khrushchëv sends to Kazakhstan, 338; as Khrushchëv’s protégé, 373, 383; and ousting of Khrushchëv, 376–8; administration, 379–80, 391, 397, 399–400; displaces Shelepin, 379; agricultural policy, 380, 400–403; avoids excessive repression, 382; qualities and background, 382–4, 404; as General Secretary, 385; visits Prague, 386; and Czechoslvak Spring, 387; Doctrine, 387–8; visits abroad, 388, 399; and nationalist aspirations, 390; and Party discipline, 391–2, 399; death and funeral, 397, 426–7, 435; foreign policy, 399; memoirs, 403; political appointments and promotions, 403; health decline, 404, 425–6; personal cult, 404; at 24th Party Congress, 405–6; and static policy, 409; and dissenters, 413; and repression, 415; and material improvements, 417; and ideology, 419; liking for popular entertainment, 421, 425; allows Jewish emigration, 423; and legality, 425; succession to, 426; appoints Andropov to head KGB, 429; and Gorbachëv, 437, 451; Yakovlev criticizes, 459; Yeltsin visits, 504; his post-Soviet reputation, 529
Brezhneva, Galina (Leonid’s daughter), 383, 426
Brezhneva, Viktoria (Leonid’s wife), 382
Britain: empire, 3, 96; in Franco-Russian entente, 3; Imperial Russian disputes with, 24; and German naval rivalry, 25; in World War I, 25, 78; intervenes in civil war, 102; diplomatic relations with USSR, 229; and outbreak of World War II, 255–7; conduct of World War II, 259, 272, 277; post-war status, 294; state welfare system, 294; resists reparation demands on Germany, 308; in Suez war (1956), 343
British Council, 557
Brodski, Iosif, 412
Bronshtein, Lev Davydovich see Trotski, Lev
Brusilov, General Alexei A., 30, 120
Brutus, 93
Buddhists, 369
budget: deficits, 467–8; balancing under Yeltsin, 510, 532, 535
Bukharin, Nikolai Ivanovich: agrees to 1918 peace settlement, 77–8; in Central Committee, 85; revolutionary aims, 92; administrative agreement with colleagues, 110; encourages German communism, 126; encourages popular education, 142; and Lenin’s health decline, 151; Lenin criticizes, 152; disagreements with Lenin, 153; and succession to Lenin, 154–5; attacks Trotski, 156; supports NEP, 156, 158, 162, 172–4; and Western powers, 158; on world capitalism, 159; economic policy, 160, 186–7; reviles critics, 161; and agricultural prices, 164, 173; opposes Stalin’s economic policies, 172–4; qualities, 173–4; conflicts with Stalin, 174–6; forced to condemn rightist policies, 178; dismissed from Politburo, 179; opposes compulsory collectivization, 179, 195; edits Izvestiya, 194; criticized at 17th Party Congress, 213; accused of espionage, 221, 223; arrested and tried, 223, 228, 240; denounced, 238; Khrushchëv and, 341, 348; rehabilitation, 459; historical accounts of, 479; The ABC of Communism (with Preobrazhenski), 142; ‘Notes of an Economist’, 173