Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolshevik) Conferences: Nineteenth (1988), 461–2; Seventh (1917), 48; Tenth (1921), 127; Twelfth (1922), 138; Thirteenth (1924), 156
Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolshevik) Congresses: Second (1903), 19, 104; Seventh (1918), 77–8; Eighth (1919), 112; Tenth (1921), 125–6; Eleventh (1922), 127, 151; Twelfth (1923), 157; Fourteenth (1925), 160; Seventeenth (1934), 212–16; Eighteenth (1939), 224, 232–3, 236, 240; Nineteenth (1952), 325–6, 328; Twentieth (1956), 338–40, 344, 436; Twenty-Second (1961), 360–61; Twenty-Third (1965), 375; Twenty-Fourth (1971), 405–6; Twenty-Fifth (1976), 407, 424; Twenty-Sixth (1981), 407; Twenty-Seventh (1986), 441–2, 444; Twenty-Eighth (1990), 490, 493
‘compound, the Soviet’, 99, 293, 397, 425, 452, 463, 485, 567–8, 570–1
Congress of People’s Deputies, 461–2, 472–5, 478, 479–80, 488–9, 492–3, 502
Congress of Soviets of Workers’ amd Soldiers’ Deputies: First (1917), 46, 49, 62, 65–6, 69; Second (1917), 59; Third (1918), 76, 84; Fifth (1918), 103–4; Eighth (1920), 121
Constituent Assembly: proposed (1917), 34, 38; and regional reorganization, 45; proposed 1917 elections, 55; and October Revolution, 67, 74; elections to, 74–5, 81–2, 89, 472; closed and dispersed, 75, 85, 92–3; in civil war, 102, 104, 106; Committee of Members (Komuch), 102, 104, 106
Constitution: adopted (1922), 133, 152; Stalin reformulates (1936), 239–40, 406; 1977 revision, 406, 488; Yeltsin’s (1993), 527–8, 529, 558, 559
Constitutional Court, 519
Constitutional-Democratic Party see Kadets
consumer goods, 335, 347, 356, 379, 407, 409, 417, 469, 539, 542
Conventional Forces in Europe Treaty (1990), 556
co-operatives, 451, 460, 471–2
Corvalan, Luis, 412
Cossacks: in northern Caucasus, 114, 133
Council of the Federation, 527, 529, 532, 553
Council of Ministers, 331
Council of People’s Commissars (Sovnarkom): formed, 66–7, 73; on landed estates, 68; political reforms, 69; political base, 74, 81; and 1917/18 peace agreement, 75–8; early rule, 85, 91, 100; economic reforms, 87, 91; and withering of capitalism, 96; and administrators, 97; violence, 97; revolutionary aims, 98; in civil war, 103; and food distribution, 109; and regions, 115; appointments to, 148; authority and scope, 151; and campaign against kulaks, 180
Council of the United Gentry, 31
crime see criminality
Crimea, 317, 367
Crimean Tatars, 367
Crimean War (1854–6), 1, 6
criminality and criminal gangs, 246, 512, 519, 532–3, 534–5, 549
Croats, 287
Cruise missiles, 400
Cuba, 352, 374, 388
culture: under communism, 191, 205–8, 246, 248–9, 549; in World War II, 281; Stalin’s repressive views on, 319, 329; under Khrushchëv, 364–6; Brezhnev restricts, 380–81; dissenters and, 415; imports from West, 540; younger writers, 540–41; see also intelligentsia
currency: World War I depreciation, 28, 31; post-World War I depreciation, 109; 1947 devaluation, 304; depreciates under Yeltsin, 519; run on rouble, 535
Czechoslovak Legion, 103, 106
Czechoslovakia: 1934 treaty with USSR, 229; Hitler occupies, 255; post-World War II elections and settlement, 307; and formation of Cominform, 308; Warsaw Pact invasion (1968), 386–8, 390, 392, 398, 409, 443, 454; communist collapse in, 483; economic recovery, 519
Czech Republic, 537, 556, 561, 562
Czernin, Otto von, 76
D-Day (Normandy, 1944), 269
Dalstroi trust, 179
Daniel, Yuli, 381, 390
Danilov, Viktor, 381
Dardanelles, 27
Daugavpils (Latvia), 457
Decembrists, 17
Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia (1917), 69, 83
Declaration of the Rights of the Toiling and Exploited People, 84
de-industrialization, 536
democracy: Gorbachëv advocates, 451–2, 454, 479; Yeltsin’s attitude to, 529
Democratic Centralists, 117–18
Democratic Conference (1917), 57
Democratic Union, 475
demonstrations (protest), 364, 387, 437
de-nationalization see privatization
Denikin, General Anton, 113, 116–17
Denmark: Germans occupy, 258
denunciations, 104, 132, 238, 244–5, 338–42
deportation: of nationalities, 133–4, 276, 284, 329, 339, 367–8; of intelligentsia, 137; in Great Terror, 215, 223–5; of nationals from annexed territories, 258; in World War II, 276, 298; post-World War II, 300; Khrushchëv regrets, 367‘deprived ones’ (lishentsy), 89, 239
devaluation (of rouble) see currency
developed socialism, 405–7, 467
dictatorship of the proletariat, 64, 88, 92, 94–6, 98, 141
diet, 184, 249, 276, 278, 356, 418; see also famine; food supply
Dimitrov, Georgi, 227
discontent, social, 81, 250–51, 297–300, 329, 358–9, 364, 371–2, 390, 410, 418, 423, 425, 473–4, 477, 518, 542, 554, 563–4dissenters (‘other-thinkers’), 381, 413–15, 449, 511; see also intelligentsia
divorce, 143, 417
Djilas, Milovan, 265, 305
doctors, 541
Doctors’ Plot (1952), 324–5, 332, 339
Dolgoruki, Prince Yuri, 323
Don Basin: miners rebel, 56; strikes, 472
Dostoevski, Fëdor, 11, 134, 207, 366, 415
drought (1946), 276
druzhinniki (vigilante groups), 361
Dubček, Alexander, 386–7, 483
Dublin, 530
Dudaev, Dzhokar, 521, 533
Dudintsev, Vladimir: By Bread Alone, 344
Dudko, Dmitri, 382, 476
Duma: formed and assembled, 1, 14–16; Nicholas II’s attitude to, 21–2, 29, 32; supports World War I, 27; and Nicholas II’s abdication, 33; impotence, 548; under 1998 constitution, 529, 550, 551, 553, 566
Dunkirk evacuation (1940), 258
Durnovo, Pëtr, 25
Dvinsk, 77
Dzhugashvili, Katerina (Stalin’s mother), 196
Dzhugashvili, Yakov (Stalin’s son), 285
Dzierżyński, Felix: supports plan to seize power, 61; heads Cheka, 74, 108; Polish origins, 85; taken hostage by Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, 103–4; advocates terror, 107–8; administrative agreement with colleagues, 110; interrogates Berdyaev, 137; disagreements with Lenin, 153
Dziuba, Ivan: Internationalism or Russification?, 391
East Berlin: Gorbachëv visits, 463
East Germany see German Democratic Republic
Eastern Europe: communist movements in, 302, 305; post-World War II policy on, 303, 305–12; Soviet purges in, 313; resents Soviet subjugation, 330, 553; and Warsaw Pact, 337; Soviet unpopularity in, 342, 353; easing of Soviet policy under Beria, 343; economic reforms, 385–6; Politburo and, 385–7; compliance demanded, 387; anti-Soviet developments, 409; and Gorbachëv’s non-interference policy, 442–3, 463–4, 481–3; communist collapse in, 483–4
economy after communism: real average income drops 529; financial collapse (1998), 530, 535; subsidies 534; devaluation (1998), 535; recovery (1999), 535–6; poverty, 541
education: encouraged by Bolsheviks, 140–42, 190–91, 205; privileged, 237, 320–21; and non-Russian languages, 367; discrimination abolished, 410; after communism, 567