at least 1000 BC. Roman doctors used it to allow them to perform prolonged operations on patients. peltast: a light infantryman of Greek and Anatolian origin. Apart from a shield, they fought unarmoured and, depending on their nationality, carried rhomphaiai or javelins and sometimes spears or knives. Their primary use was as skirmishers. phalera (pl. phalerae): a sculpted disc-like decoration for bravery which was worn on a chest harness, over a Roman soldier's armour. Phalerae were commonly made of bronze, but could be made of more precious metals as well. Torques, arm rings and bracelets were also awarded. pilum (pl. pila): the Roman javelin. It consisted of a wooden shaft approximately 1.2 m (4 ft) long, joined to a thin iron shank approximately 0.6 m (2 ft) long, and was topped by a small pyramidal point. The javelin was heavy and, when launched, all of its weight was concentrated behind the head, giving it tremendous penetrative force. It could strike through a shield to injure the man carrying it, or lodge in the shield, making it impossible for the man to continue using it. The range of the pilum was about 30 m (100 ft), although the effective range was probably about half this distance. Priapus: the god of gardens and fields, a symbol of fertility. Often pictured with a huge erect penis. primus pilus: the senior centurion of the whole legion, and possibly – probably – the senior centurion of the first cohort. A position of immense importance, it would have been held by a veteran soldier, typically in his forties or fifties. On retiring, the primus pilus was entitled to admission to the equestrian class. principia: the headquarters of a legion, to be found on the Via Praetoria. This was the beating heart of the legion in a marching camp or fort; it was where all the administration was carried out and where the unit's standards, in particular the Aquila, or eagle, were kept. Its massive entrance opened on to a colonnaded and paved courtyard which was bordered on each side by offices. Behind this was a huge forehall with a high roof, which contained statues, the shrine for the standards, a vault for the legion's pay and possibly more offices. It is likely that parades took place here, and that senior officers addressed their men in the hall. pugio: a dagger. Some Roman soldiers carried these, an extra weapon. They were probably as useful in daily life (for eating and preparing food, etc.) as when on campaign. retiarius (pl. retiarii): the fisherman, or net and trident fighter, named after the rete, or net. Also an easily recognisable class of gladiator, the retiarius merely wore a subligaria. His only protection consisted of the galerus, a metal shoulder-guard, which was attached to the top edge of a manica on his left arm. His weapons were the weighted net, a trident and a dagger. With less equipment to weigh him down, the retiarius was far more mobile than many other gladiators and, lacking a helmet, was also instantly recognisable. This may have accounted for the low status of this class of fighter. rhomphaia (pl. rhomphaiai): essentially a polearm. This fearsome weapon had a straight or slightly curved single cutting edge attached to a pole which was considerably longer than the blade. While primarily used by the Thracians, a variant called the falx was also used by the Dacians. The design of both gave tremendous cutting force. After encountering the falx in Dacia, the Romans' response was to make the only known documented change to their armour in response to an enemy's weapon, that of strengthening their helmets with reinforcing bars. rudis: the wooden gladius which symbolised the freedom that could be granted to a gladiator who pleased a sponsor sufficiently, or who had earned enough victories in the arena to qualify for it. Not all gladiators were condemned to die in combat: far from it. Prisoners of war and criminals usually were, but slaves who had committed a crime were granted the rudis if they survived for three years as a gladiator. After a further two years, they could be set free. scutum (pl. scuta): an elongated oval Roman army shield, about 1.2 m (4 ft) tall and 0.75 m (2 ft 6 in) wide. It was made from two layers of wood, the pieces laid at right angles to each other; it was then covered with linen or canvas, and leather. The scutum was heavy, weighing between 6 and 10 kg (13-22 lb). A large metal boss decorated its centre, with the horizontal grip placed behind this. Decorative designs were often painted on the front, and a leather cover was used to protect the shield when not in use, e.g. while marching. secutor (pl. secutores): the pursuer, or hunter class of gladiator. Also called the contraretiarius, the secutor fought the fisherman, the retiarius. Virtually the only difference between the secutor and the murmillo was the smooth-surfaced helmet, which was without a brim and had a small, plain crest, probably to make it more difficult for the retiarius' net to catch and hold. Unlike other gladiators' helmets, the secutor's had small eyeholes, making it very difficult to see. This was possibly to reduce the chances of the heavily armoured fighter quickly overcoming the retiarius. sestertius (pl. sestertii): a silver coin, it was worth four asses; or a quarter of a denarius; or one hundredth of an aureus. Its name, 'two units and a half third one', comes from its original value, two and a half asses. By the time of the late Roman Republic, its use was becoming more common. signifer (pl. signiferi): a standard-bearer and junior officer. This was a position of high esteem, with one for every century in a legion. Not much definite information survives about the uniform worn by signiferi at this time. Following later examples, I have made the signifer wear scale armour and an animal skin over his helmet, and carry a small, round shield rather than a scutum. His signum, or standard, consisted of a wooden pole bearing a raised hand, or a spear tip surrounded by palm leaves. Below this was a crossbar from which hung metal decorations, or a piece of coloured cloth. The standard's shaft was decorated with discs, half-moons, ships' prows and crowns, which were records of the unit's achievements and may have distinguished one century from another. stade (pl. stadia): a Greek word. It was the distance of the original foot race in the ancient Olympic games of 776 BC, and was approximately 192 m (630 ft) in length. The word stadium derives from it. stola: a long, loose tunic, with or without sleeves, worn by married women. Those who were unmarried wore other types of tunic, but to simplify things, I have mentioned only one garment, worn by all. tablinum: the office or reception area beyond the atrium. The tablinum usually opened on to an enclosed colonnaded garden. tesserarius: one of the junior officers in a century, whose duties included commanding the guard. The name originates from the tessera tablet on which was written the password for the day. testudo: the famous Roman square formation, formed by legionaries in the middle raising their scuta over their heads while those at the sides formed a shield wall. The testudo, or tortoise, was used to resist missile attack or to protect soldiers while they undermined the walls of towns under siege. The formation's strength was reputedly tested during military training by driving a cart pulled by mules over the top of it. Thracian: like most gladiators, this class had its origins with one of Rome's enemies – Thrace (modern-day Bulgaria). Armed with a small square shield with a convex surface, this fighter wore greaves on both legs and, occasionally, fasciae – protectors on the thighs. The right arm was covered by a manica. A Hellenistic-type helmet was worn, with a broad curving brim and cheek guards. thureophoros (pl. thureophoroi): an infantryman very similar to the peltast. The thurephoroi succeeded the peltasts as one of the most common type of mercenary in the eastern Mediterranean from the third century BC onwards. Grave paintings for thureophoroi have been found in Greece, Anatolia, Bithynia and Egypt. Carrying oval or rectangular shields rather than round ones, they wore Macedonian-style helmets and a variety of coloured tunics, and were armed with a long spear, javelins and a sword. tribune: senior staff officer within a legion; also one of ten political positions in Rome, where they served as 'tribunes of the people', defending the rights of the plebeians. The tribunes could also veto measures taken by the Senate or consuls, except in times of war. To assault a tribune was a crime of the highest order. trierarch: the captain of a trireme. Originally a Greek rank, the term persisted in the Roman navy. triplex acies: the standard deployment of a legion for battle. Three lines were formed some distance apart, with four cohorts in the front line and three in the middle and rear lines. The gaps between the cohorts and between the lines themselves are unclear, but the legionaries would have been accustomed to different variations, and to changing these quickly when ordered. trireme: the classic Roman warship, which was powered by a single sail and three banks of oars. Each oar was rowed by one man, who was freeborn, not a slave. Exceptionally manoeuvrable, and capable of up to 8 knots under sail or for short bursts when rowed, the trireme also had a bronze ram at the prow. This was used to damage or even sink enemy ships. Small catapults were also mounted on the deck. Each trireme was crewed by around 30 men and had approximately 200 rowers; it also carried up to 60 marines (in a reduced century), giving it a very large crew in proportion to its size. This limited the triremes' range, so they were mainly used as troop transports and to protect coastlines. valetudinarium: the hospital in a legionary fort. These were usually rectangular buildings with a central courtyard. They contained up to 64 wards, each similar to the rooms in the legionary barracks which held a contubernium of soldiers. velarium: a cloth awning positioned over the seats of the rich at the arena. It protected them from the worst of the sun's heat and allowed Roman women to remain fair-skinned, a most important quality. venatores (sing. venator): a trained beast-fighter. They hunted animals like antelope, wild goats and giraffe, and more dangerous ones such as lions, tigers, bears and elephants. Typically the lowest class of gladiator, the venatores provided the warm-up acts in the morning, before the main attraction of man-to-man combats later in the day. Venus: the Roman goddess of motherhood and domesticity. vexillum (pl. vexilla): a distinctive, usually red, flag which was used to denote the commander's position in camp or in battle. Vexilla were also used by detachments serving away from their units. vilicus: slave foreman or farm manager. Commonly a slave, the vilicus was sometimes a paid worker, whose job it was to make sure that the returns on a farm were as large as possible. This was most commonly done by treating the slaves brutally.