Photograph 10.2.4 Fried cassava chips.
10.2.2.5 Peujeum
Peujeum is a delicacy originally from Java, Indonesia. Peeled cassava roots are steamed to soften, then cooled and mashed. The cooled mash is inoculated with ragi (active yeast and mould cultured in a mixture of flour and spices) to initiate fermentation. The inoculated mash is wrapped in banana leaves and allowed to ferment for up to two days in earthenware containers. The fermented product, Peujeum, has a pleasant acidic and alcoholic flavour, which may be eaten as it is, or baked (Tamang and Kailasapathy, 2010).
Figure 10.2.4 Process flow for fried cassava chips production.
10.2.2.6 Pastries from Cassava Composites
A number of studies have been done on exploiting the potential of cassava in the bakery industry (Abass et al., 1998; Balagopalan et al., 1998) and a myriad of products including bread, pancakes, bagels, cookies and doughnuts have been tried. Studies confirm up to 30 % cassava flour can be used to produce bakery products of acceptable quality (Falade and Akinbgala, 2008; Onabolu and Bokanga, 1995). One of such well-studied cassava composite products is cassava bread.
10.2.2.7 Cassava Bread
Research efforts started back in the 1960s to produce gluten-free breads for celiac patients and to find cheaper flour alternatives for baking in countries where production of wheat was impossible due to climatic conditions (Eggleston and Omoaka, 1993). In using cassava-composite flour for bread-making, the important factors are:
• Increased amount of margarine and egg white to reduce the extent of starch gelatinization and solubilization. Lower fat content results in collapsed bread, coarse and irregular crumbs and stickiness: Margarine enhances the amount of air retained in the bread batter during mixing, thereby raising the upper limit of gas retention. Egg white, on the other hand, functions as a stabilizer and its use with larger quantities of margarine (fat) increases the bread volume (Eggleston and Omoaka, 1993).
• Cassava variety and use of fertilizers during production play an important role. Cassava variety has an influence on loaf volume, and studies show cassava flours with relatively low diastatic activities and high maximum paste viscosities, which may give a more acceptable bread (Eggleston and Omoaka, 1993; Shittu et al., 2008).
• Baking time, temperature and tin size also have significant influences on some physical properties of the loaf from composite cassava-wheat flour (Oduro et al., 2007; Shittu et al., 2007).
Bread prepared from the substitution of 30 % cassava flour produces a loaf with sensory attributes, acceptability and readiness to buy, similar to bread made with 100 % wheat flour, depending on the source of the wheat flour (Eriksson, 2013). Though the cassava flour is a less expensive alternative compared to wheat flour for baking in West Africa (Sanni et al., 2009), the commercialization of ready-to-use composite flour is yet to be a reality.
10.2.2.8 Pappad
Pappad is a crisp snack originally from India, but now an accepted delicacy among many nationalities. The cassava flour is gelatinized, seasoned with salt and pepper and the paste spread on a cloth/polyethylene sheet followed by sun drying (drying time is dependent on prevailing climatic conditions). The spread dried paste (papad) is the intermediate product stored for further use. When ready to eat, the spread dried paste (pappad) is deep fried in vegetable oil until crisp. It usually swells to about three times to its original size during frying (Balagopan, 2002).
10.2.2.9 Akara-akpu
Akara-akpu is a common Nigerian delicacy. The snack, akara-akpu, or cassava balls as called by the Nigerians, is processed from sweet cassava flour/mash spiced with pepper, salt and onion. The resultant mash is rolled into balls and fried in pre-heated vegetable/palm oil (Photograph 10.2.5). The nutritional quality of akara-apku can be improved by incorporating soya bean or defatted melon flour in the production. According to Chinma et al. (2007), a significant increase was observed in the protein, ash and energy values of the improved akara-akpu (Figure 10.2.5) The improved product has also been reported to have a shelf stability of between 2 and 4 weeks (Chinma et al., 2007; 2010).
Photograph 10.2.5 Akara-akpu as served at home.
Figure 10.2.5 Process flow for akara-akpu production.
10.2.3 Cassava-based Beverages
Cassava is used to prepare beverages in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Prominent among them includes the following:
10.2.3.1 Cassareep
Bitter cassava varieties are used in the preparation of cassareep. Originally from India, the extracted juice is spiced with salt and pepper and boiled for a long time until it thickens. The long boiling time significantly reduces the cyanogenic potential and the resultant syrup is often used as a base for many sauces, popular among which is the pepperpot of the Guyanese. Cassareep is also used as a traditional preservative and has antiseptic characteristics. It is currently bottled for sale in the Caribbean and United States (Jacob-Ashkenazi et al., 2014).
10.2.3.2 Chicha
Chicha is a beer originally from South America. According to Alvarez et al. (2008), it is produced from fermented cassava irrespective of the sweetness/bitterness of the variety. In Ghana, a limited company has recently introduced and commercialized a new beer (ruut extra) from cassava starch ― a major breakthrough for local industrialization of hitherto not-so-important commodity.
10.2.3.3 Mingao
Mingao, a beverage common to Latin America and the Caribbean, is produced from fermented cassava starch. A small amount of fermented starch is dissolved in boiling water and cooked until it thickens. The resulting solution is flavoured with fruits such as lime, pineapple and banana to mask the unpleasant smell (Balagopalan, 2002).
10.2.4 Major Popular Meals
10.2.4.1 Tapioca (Cassava Starch)
Tapioca, a name sometimes used for cassava starch in general, here refers to starch grits, which is a common breakfast meal among the Ewes of Ghana. It is also enjoyed in Togo, Benin and other neighbouring countries. Tapioca is obtained by pan roasting moist cassava starch and the resultant grits (Photograph 10.2.6a) stored for other end uses. Common among these is the preparation of porridge, flour and sometimes as a snack with roasted groundnuts (Photograph 10.2.6b). The process flow for tapioca is presented in Figure 10.2.6.