To prepare tapioca porridge, the grits are soaked for about 30 min to soften, followed by gentle heating and stirring of the solution until desired consistency and texture is reached. The porridge may be enjoyed with sugar and milk to taste. Efforts have been made in recent years to improve the nutritional quality of the meal. Balogun (2012) reported an addition of 20 % defatted soy flour produced tapioca with a protein content of 10.73 %, compared to the initial protein content of 1.20 %, with acceptable sensorial attributes.
Photograph 10.2.6a Tapioca grits as sold in a Ghanaian market.
Photograph 10.2.6b Value-added tapioca from Benin.
Figure 10.2.6 Process flow of tapioca production.
10.2.4.2 Boiled Cassava Root
Boiling is the most common method of preparing cassava for immediate consumption in most areas of cassava cultivation (Ameny, 1990). The boiled roots, together with meat sauce, is a popular appetizer or side dish in East Africa, but generally consumed as a main meal in West Africa, notably Northern Nigeria, Cameroon, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Ghana. Bankye ampesie, as it is known among the Akans in Ghana, is eaten with ground pepper sauce with palm oil as a late morning or afternoon meal (Photograph 10.2.7).
Photograph 10.2.7 Cassava bankye ampesie with pepper sauce and egg.
The dish, is best enjoyed when made from sweet cassava varieties with higher dry matter. Thus, its consumption is currently common only in the farming communities where such varieties are readily available. Lesser popularity among urban dwellers may be due to the existing perception that the dish is a poor man’s food. Therefore, there is a need to educate the populace on the nutritional and economic importance of cassava to erode the misconceptions about the crop. The boiled roots are also put to other food uses, prominent among which is the Ghanaian fufu.
10.2.4.3 Fufu
Fufu is the main traditional meal of the Ashantis in Ghana. Originally called fufuo by the Ashantis, the dish is enjoyed by many other ethnic groups and is now a common meal in most households in both urban and rural areas. Typically, cassava roots and cocoyam/plantain is peeled, washed, cut into smaller sizes and cooked. After cooking, they are pounded to a soft and elastic texture, made into balls of sizes preferred by the consumer and then served with soup (Photographs 10.2.8b and c).
Photograph 10.2.8a Lady pounding fufu.
Photograph 10.2.8b A bowl of pounded fufu (cassava and plantain).
Photograph 10.2.8c Fufu as served at home.
The process is such that one person (usually the female in the family) sits by the mortar to turn the fufu with her hands (occasionally dipping hands in water, placed beside the mortar), while another person (usually a teenage male in the family) either sits or stands to pound using the pestle. In some cases, the woman does both the steering and pounding concurrently, depending on the quantity of the fufu being prepared and the size of the pestle being used.
There are other types of fufu across the sub-region and prominent among them are dumby and Nigerian fufu. Dumby is originally from Liberia and is similar to the Ghanaian fufu in many respects, except no one steers the mixture in the mortar during pounding but the pestle is intermittently dipped into water to prevent sticking (Balagopalan, 2002). Thus, the process involves only one individual who does the pounding.
Nigerian fufu also known as akpu by the Igbos or loi-loi in some other parts of Nigeria, and is prominent among the indigenous dishes of natives of Southern Nigerian states. Unlike the processing of the Ghanaian fufu, the process requires the cassava being used to be fermented, similar to the processing of gari (elaborated in Figure 10.2.7). Thus, the roots are peeled, washed, cut into pieces and soaked in water at room temperature for 5 days. Through the fermentation, there is the release of hydrogen cyanide, reduction in pH level and softening of the roots producing the characteristic flavour of fermented cassava meal. The mash is then sieved through small baskets to remove ligneous central strands, drained of excess water and moulded into small balls which are boiled in a saucepan lined with plantain or banana leaves to produce a softer dough (Ray and Sivakumar, 2009). This is usually served with any local soup of choice (Photograph 10.2.9). Loi-loi is available in ready-to-eat forms in the Nigerian markets. According to Tomlins et al. (2007), it can be dried to produce fufu flour for commercial purposes. To reconstitute the fufu, a fine paste is prepared from flour with cold water in the ratio 2: 3. This is then heated with constant stirring using a wooden pestle to form a stiff paste.
Figure 10.2.7 Process flow for Nigerian fufu.
Photograph 10.2.9 Nigerian fufu served with bitter leaf soup.
A similar type of loi-loi is also consumed among the Akyems, Krobos and Gas in Ghana, except they do not boil the balls from the fermented mash but rather stir it in a pot on the fire (with intermittent addition of water) using a flat wooden ladle to produce a soft meal often eaten with okra soup or sauce.
Extensive work has been done on fufu in Nigeria and Ghana, resulting in a number of innovations for convenience and ease of preparation. Popular among these is the fufu pounding machine (now extensively used in local eateries) and fufu flour (Jumah et al., 2008) for both the Nigerian and Ghanaian types. In fufu flour, water is added and cooked on the fire to desired consistency. The resultant dough is then moulded into desired shape and size. Thus, pounding is eliminated and preparation time is greatly reduced. A number of studies have been conducted to investigate key processing parameters of the Nigerian fufu. Assanvo et al. (2006) found lactic acid bacteria, Bacillus spp. and yeast as key microbes during the fermentation stage of fufu processing. Fayemi and Ojokoh (2012) investigated the effect of different fermentation techniques on the quality of fufu. The study showed back slopping and brine fermentation to be the most efficient processes for reducing the cyanogenic potential of cassava. According to their report, fufu flour from back slopping and brine fermentation processing were characterized by low moisture and increased protein, fat and mineral content (i.e. calcium, sodium and potassium); however, the traditional processed samples recorded higher functional properties (i.e. bulk density, swelling power and water absorption capacity).
Distinctive flavour profiles have been identified by different consumer groups in sensory studies of fufu from different processing protocols. Traditionally prepared fufu (made from fermented paste) was the most accepted, although acceptance levels differed from community to community (Tomlins et al., 2007). The authors recommended further studies in enhancing processing protocols of fufu flour to improve its sensorial attributes.
10.2.4.4 Roasted Cassava Grits
Roasted cassava grits, popularly known as gari across West Africa, is a common food product in most communities of the sub-region. According to Okafor and Ejiofor (1990), it is eaten by over 200 million people across West Africa. However, the quality of gari in different processing zones differs, which results in variations of product quality, hindering its commercialization and potential end uses. Thus, some studies have been conducted on its quality and standardized garification (gari-making) for industrial use (Akingbala et al., 2005; Oduro and Clarke, 1999), as well as to improve the nutritional quality using other indigenous products (Alakali et al., 2008; Sanni, 2012). The process flow for gari production is elaborated on in Figure 10.2.8. Gari is readily available in local markets and supermarkets across the sub-region (Photograph 10.2.10a).