Several pilots refused because of the separation from their families. The remainder were highly curious. There was wild speculation on what the job offer was really about. Marty Knutson thought they were going to be astronauts.[53] Francis Gary Powers thought it sounded like the Flying Tigers.[54]
It was not until the third interview that the tantalizing mysteries were made clear. The pilots were told they would be working for the CIA and that they would be flying a new airplane that could go higher than any other. Their pay, during training, would […] per month; overseas it would be raised to $2,500 per month. This was almost as much as an airline captain's salary. Their time with the CIA would count toward air force retirement and rank. Part of their job would be to fly along the Soviet border to record radio and radar signals. Their main job, they were stunned to learn, would be to overfly the Soviet Union. They were given a day to think it over.
Those pilots who agreed underwent several months of briefings, lie-detector tests, and medical checks at the Lovelace Clinic in Albuquerque, New Mexico. The examination lasted a week and involved tests developed specifically for the prospective U-2 pilots. (They were later used for the Mercury astronauts.) One series tested for claustrophobia — a necessity given the cramped cockpit and restrictive partial-pressure suit. A handful of pilots washed out. The rest, about twenty-five in all, resigned from the air force (a process called "sheep dipping") and signed eighteen-month contracts with the CIA. They were then sent to the Ranch.
The training program at the Ranch was a joint CIA-air force operation.
The group was commanded by Col. Bill Yancey and included four experienced instructor pilots. Because there were no two-seat U-2s at this time (or even a ground simulator), the instructor pilots were limited to conducting the ground school.[55] The CIA pilots underwent training in three groups, starting in early 1956 and continuing through the year. While at the Ranch, the pilots used cover names. Francis Gary Powers became "Francis G. Palmer" (same initials and similar last name).[56] The pilots' gray green flight suits had no name tags nor squadron patches. They did wear film badges that measured radiation exposure, because of the nearby nuclear test site.[57]
The pilots first underwent ground school, which included training in use of the pressure suit. Then flight training began. The first two flights were landing practice in a T-33. The technique used to land the U-2 was directly counter to that used in conventional aircraft.
Once this was completed, the pilots could begin flying the U-2. The initial flights would again be landing training. This was followed by high-altitude flights. Then the pilots would begin flying long-range simulated missions, lasting up to eight hours.[58] These training flights went from Groom Lake to the Allegheny Mountains and back — a flight of some 4,000 miles.[59] In all, some sixteen flights were made. As the training progressed, each pilot was evaluated.[60]
The U-2 flight training was much more extensive than that for other air force planes. The U-2 was a very demanding aircraft. The takeoff roll was only a few hundred feet. The U-2 would then go into a spectacular climb at better than a 45-degree angle. The first few times the pilots thought the U-2 would continue right over on its back. The U-2 would continue up to 60,000 feet before leveling off. Then, as fuel was used, the plane slowly climbed. The peak altitude was about 75,000 feet. This depended on both the fuel and equipment load, and on the air temperature. Between 55,000 and 60,000 feet, the air temperature could vary widely. This could cause the aircraft to climb more rapidly or even force it to descend.
Above 68,000 feet, the difference between the U-2's stall speed and its maximum speed was only 10 knots. This was called the "coffin corner." The aircraft could easily exceed these limits due to control inputs or pilot inat-tention. The result would be the plane tearing itself apart within seconds.
The pilot would have to maintain this balancing act for hours on end, plus navigate, operate the camera, and monitor fuel consumption. Therefore the autopilot was critical in controlling the plane.
Coming down from this lofty perch was difficult. The pilot could not simply point the nose down — the aircraft would overspeed and break up.
Rather, the throttle was eased back to idle, then the landing gear and speed brakes were deployed. Even so, the descent was very slow — a striking contrast to the rocketlike climb. As the U-2 descended, the margin between the stall and maximum speed would widen.[61]
As the aircraft approached for the landing, fuel had to be transferred to balance the wings. If one wing became too heavy, the plane could go into an uncontrollable spin. Unlike at high altitudes, where the U-2 had to be flown with a light touch, at lower altitudes, the pilot had to manhandle the plane.
Even the touchdown was critical. The pilot had to hold the long wings level, a difficult task in a crosswind. If the plane was stalled too high, it would hit the runway, bounce into the air, stall, and crash before the engine could come to full power.
The U-2 was a plane that required the pilot's complete attention every second. There was no margin for error. The flights were so exhausting that a pilot would not be allowed to fly again for two days.[62]
But, as Powers later noted, the rewards of a U-2 flight were far greater.
From altitude, above Arizona, the pilot could see from the Monterey Peninsula to midway down Baja California. Above was the blue black of space.
Powers wrote, "Being so high gave you a unique satisfaction. Not a feeling of superiority or omnipotence, but a special aloneness." He added, "There was only one thing wrong with flying higher than any other man had flown. You couldn't brag about it."[63]
The first group of pilots had the roughest time. The U-2 was barely out of the test phase and was still plagued with engine flameout problems. In one incident, Bissell received a call that a U-2 flying over the Mississippi River had suffered a flameout. The engine had apparently been damaged as it was vibrating and could not be restarted. The pilot radioed he would land at Kirtland Air Force Base at Albuquerque, New Mexico. Bissell called the base commander at Kirtland and told him a U-2 would be landing in about fifteen minutes. He asked the commander to have the base air police at the runway when it landed. They should cover the plane with tarps to hide its configuration. A half hour later, Bissell received a call from Kirtland. The base commander reported that the plane had landed safely and that he was talking with the pilot in his office.[64] In another case, a U-2 flamed out and landed at the Palm Springs Airport. A C-124 transport and recovery crew took off within an hour to pick it up. The incident was reported in the local newspaper but attracted little attention.
The first group also suffered a fatal crash. Wilbur Rose took off on a training flight when one of the pogos failed to fall out. He flew low over the field trying to shake it free. He misjudged, and the plane, heavy with fuel, stalled. Rose died in the crash.[65]
The second group, which included Powers, went through the Ranch between May and August 1956. They suffered no crashes or washouts. Powers recalled that he was nervous before making his first high-altitude flight and forgot to retract the landing gear after takeoff. As he flew above California and Nevada, his first impression of the U-2 was disappointment — the plane was not capable of the altitude that had been promised. When time came to begin the descent, Powers started to lower the landing gear, only to realize it had been down the whole time. His impression improved considerably. He had broken the world altitude record with the gear down.[66]
53
Francis Gary Powers and Curt Gentry,
54
Pocock,
58
Francis Gary Powers, Flight Log (Central Intelligence Agency, Washington, D.C.: May 1956-April 1960).
60
Evaluation, July 6, 1956 (Francis Gary Powers File, Central Intelligence Agency: Washington, D.C.).
64
Shaw, "Interview with Bissell," 21. The U-2 could glide 250 nautical miles from 70,000 feet. The descent took 73 minutes. This was for "still air" conditions only, as one member of the first group learned in early 1956. He suffered a flameout over the Grand Canyon. As the plane descended, he pointed it toward the Ranch, less than 100 miles away. The U-2 entered a strong jet stream, which nearly pushed it backward. After several relight attempts, it looked as if he would have to land on a dirt strip in the canyon.
Finally, he was able to restart the engine and return to Groom Lake.
66